Indian Polity Set 91
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π Polity β’ Elections
Q.1) The Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT) system was first used in an assembly by-election in 2013 in the Noksen constituency. In which state is this constituency located?
Ans > Nagaland
- Introduction to the VVPAT System: The Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail is an independent printer machine attached to electronic voting machines (EVMs). It allows voters to physically verify that their vote was cast correctly, ensuring greater transparency and reducing allegations of electoral fraud or machine tampering during the democratic process.
- First Deployment in Nagaland: The Election Commission of India historically introduced the VVPAT system during the by-election for the Noksen assembly constituency in Nagaland in September 2013. This marked a monumental milestone in Indian electoral reforms, providing the first physical paper trail for electronic votes in the country.
- Supreme Court Mandate: Following a landmark judgment in the Subramanian Swamy vs. Election Commission of India case in 2013, the Supreme Court mandated the phased introduction of VVPATs. By the 2019 General Elections, the Election Commission had successfully deployed VVPAT machines in all 543 Lok Sabha constituencies, ensuring 100% coverage and boosting voter confidence.
π Polity β’ Electoral Reforms
Q.2) The Tarkunde Committee (1974-75) on electoral reforms was appointed by which prominent leader/organization?
Ans > Jayaprakash Narayan (Citizens For Democracy)
- Origins and Unofficial Appointment: The Tarkunde Committee was unofficially appointed in August 1974 by the prominent leader Jayaprakash Narayan on behalf of the Citizens for Democracy (CFD). Led by V.M. Tarkunde, a respected civil rights activist and former judge, the committee aimed to address growing public concerns over electoral corruption and the misuse of government machinery.
- Key Recommendations on Voting Age: One of the most historically significant recommendations made by this committee was advocating for the reduction of the voting age from 21 years down to 18 years. This foresight laid the vital intellectual groundwork for the eventual constitutional amendment that took place over a decade later.
- Election Commission Autonomy: The committee strongly advocated for transforming the Election Commission into a multi-member body to prevent the dangerous centralization of power. Additionally, it recommended that the selection of the Chief Election Commissioner should be made by an independent committee consisting of the Prime Minister, the Leader of the Opposition, and the Chief Justice of India.
π Polity β’ Electoral Reforms
Q.3) Which committee on electoral reforms was appointed in 1998 specifically to examine the feasibility of state funding of elections?
Ans > Indrajit Gupta Committee
- Purpose of the Committee: Formed in 1998, the Indrajit Gupta Committee was an all-party parliamentary committee specifically tasked with examining the feasibility of state funding of elections. The primary goal was to curb the growing influence of black money, illicit wealth, and corporate interference in the Indian political and electoral process.
- Recommendations on State Funding: The committee concluded that state funding was both constitutionally and legally justified to establish a level playing field for candidates of varying economic backgrounds. However, it explicitly recommended that such funding should be strictly restricted to recognized national and state political parties, excluding independent candidates entirely.
- Method of State Support: Importantly, the committee advised against direct financial cash handouts to political parties. Instead, it recommended state funding in kind, suggesting provisions like the free printing of electoral rolls, free broadcast time on state-owned television and radio media, and rent-free office spaces for recognized political entities.
π Polity β’ Constitutional Review
Q.4) The National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution (NCRWC), set up in 2000, was headed by whom?
Ans > Justice M.N. Venkatachaliah
- Establishment and Mandate: The National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution (NCRWC) was set up by a resolution of the Government of India in February 2000 during the Atal Bihari Vajpayee administration. Its mandate was to suggest changes to the Constitution to address contemporary challenges without altering its “basic structure,” as defined by the Supreme Court.
- Leadership and Composition: The commission was headed by Justice M.N. Venkatachaliah, a highly respected former Chief Justice of India. The panel consisted of eleven distinguished members, including prominent legal luminaries, former politicians, and administrators, ensuring a comprehensive and bipartisan review of the constitutional framework and electoral laws.
- Key Focus Areas and Reports: The commission focused heavily on issues like electoral reforms, governmental stability, and the fundamental rights of citizens. It submitted its exhaustive final report in 2002 in two volumes, recommending measures such as anti-defection law strengthening, the creation of a national judicial commission, and mechanisms to ensure political stability in a fractured parliament.
π Polity β’ Elections
Q.5) The first general elections to the Lok Sabha in independent India were held during which period?
Ans > 1951-1952
- Massive Logistical Undertaking: The first general elections in independent India, held between October 1951 and February 1952, represented the largest democratic exercise in human history up to that point. Overseen by the first Chief Election Commissioner, Sukumar Sen, the process involved registering roughly 173 million voters, the vast majority of whom were unlettered and living in remote rural areas.
- Innovative Voting Methods: Because a large portion of the newly enfranchised electorate could not read, the Election Commission introduced the innovative use of pictorial election symbols for political parties. Furthermore, instead of marking a ballot paper, voters were instructed to drop a blank ballot into a specific ballot box assigned to their chosen candidate, which featured the party’s symbol.
- Political Outcome: The Indian National Congress, riding on the immense legacy of the freedom struggle and led by Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, secured a massive landslide victory. The party won 364 out of the 489 Lok Sabha seats, officially cementing Nehru’s position as India’s first democratically elected Prime Minister and establishing a stable early government.
π Polity β’ Constitutional Amendments
Q.6) The voting age in India was reduced from 21 to 18 years by the 61st Constitutional Amendment Act. In which year did this amendment come into force?
Ans > 1989
- Legislative Background: The 61st Constitutional Amendment Act was officially passed by the Parliament in 1988 during the tenure of Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi. However, it formally came into force in March 1989, just ahead of the crucial general elections held later that same year, reshaping the demographic landscape of Indian politics.
- Constitutional Alteration: To enact this massive demographic shift, the amendment specifically altered Article 326 of the Indian Constitution, which deals with elections to the Lok Sabha and the State Legislative Assemblies based on adult suffrage. This fundamental change required the ratification of at least half of the state legislatures before it could be implemented.
- Impact on Youth Participation: The reduction of the voting age was a deliberate move to express faith in the youth of the country and to make the democratic process more inclusive and unrepresentative. This single legislative stroke added nearly 50 million newly eligible young voters to the electoral rolls, drastically altering campaign strategies and political priorities across the nation.
π Polity β’ Elections
Q.7) In 2003, the facility to opt for ‘proxy voting’ was introduced for which specific category of voters?
Ans > Classified Service Voters (Armed forces personnel)
- Introduction of Proxy Voting: In 2003, an amendment to the Conduct of Elections Rules, 1961, formally introduced the facility of proxy voting in India. This specific facility was uniquely designed to cater to the logistical challenges faced by Classified Service Voters, ensuring their democratic rights were preserved despite their professional geographic constraints.
- Target Demographic: The primary beneficiaries of this system are members of the armed forces, paramilitary forces, and government personnel posted in foreign missions abroad. Because these individuals are frequently deployed far from their registered home constituencies, attending polling booths in person is virtually impossible during general or state elections.
- Mechanics of the System: Under this established system, a service voter is permitted to officially nominate a proxyβusually a trusted family member or resident of the same constituency. The appointed proxy can then visit the polling station on election day and cast the vote on behalf of the service personnel, alongside the traditional alternative option of utilizing a secure postal ballot.
π Polity β’ Electoral Reforms
Q.8) Following a Supreme Court directive, the Election Commission introduced the “None of the Above” (NOTA) option on EVMs in which year?
Ans > 2013
- Supreme Court Directive: The introduction of NOTA was the direct result of a landmark judgment delivered by the Supreme Court of India in September 2013, following a Public Interest Litigation filed by the People’s Union for Civil Liberties (PUCL). The court ruled that voters possess a fundamental right to register a negative opinion and reject all candidates contesting an election.
- EVM Integration and Symbol: Following the judicial mandate, the Election Commission integrated the NOTA button at the very bottom of the candidate list on Electronic Voting Machines. Later, in 2015, the Election Commission introduced a specific, universally recognizable symbol for NOTAβa ballot paper with a black cross across itβto aid illiterate voters in identifying the option.
- Electoral Impact and Limitations: While NOTA allows voters to express discontent, it currently holds no direct electoral value in determining the outcome of parliamentary or assembly elections in India. Even if NOTA receives the maximum number of votes in a constituency, the actual candidate with the next highest number of votes is still legally declared the winner.
π Polity β’ Elections
Q.9) Who has the authority to fix and revise the maximum limit of election expenses that can be incurred by a candidate for a parliamentary constituency?
Ans > The Central Government in consultation with the Election Commission
- Legal Framework: The authority to regulate election expenditure is rooted in the Conduct of Elections Rules, 1961, formulated under the Representation of the People Act, 1951. Under this specific legal framework, the Central Government possesses the definitive power to fix and periodically revise the maximum limit of election expenses for candidates.
- Consultative Process: The Central Government cannot arbitrarily change these limits; it is legally required to do so in strict consultation with the Election Commission of India. The Election Commission continually monitors inflation, the cost of campaigning materials, and logistical realities on the ground before officially recommending any upward revisions to the government.
- Disparity in Expenditure Limits: The expenditure limits are not uniform across the entire country; they deliberately vary depending on the geographic size and voter population of a specific state. For instance, candidates in larger states like Uttar Pradesh or Maharashtra have a significantly higher spending limit compared to candidates contesting in smaller states like Goa or Sikkim.
π Polity β’ Election Commission
Q.10) To encourage more young voters to take part in the political process, the Election Commission of India celebrates ‘National Voters’ Day’ every year on which date?
Ans > January 25
- Historical Significance of the Date: National Voters’ Day is intentionally celebrated on January 25th every year because this specific date marks the official foundation day of the Election Commission of India, which was established on January 25, 1950, exactly one day before India formally became a Republic.
- Inception and Primary Objective: The Government of India, under the leadership of then-Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, initiated the celebration of National Voters’ Day in the year 2011. The primary, driving objective behind this initiative was to actively encourage, facilitate, and maximize the enrollment of new, young voters who have just turned 18 years old.
- Thematic Celebrations and Outreach: Every single year, the Election Commission celebrates this day with a specific, targeted theme, such as “No Voter to be Left Behind” or “Making Elections Inclusive, Accessible and Participative.” The day involves distributing newly printed Electoral Photo Identity Cards (EPICs) to young voters and conducting massive awareness campaigns across schools and colleges nationwide.
π Polity β’ Constitution
Q.11) Which Part of the Constitution is entirely dedicated to Elections and the Election Commission?
Ans > Part XV
- Constitutional Placement: Part XV of the Constitution of India is exclusively and comprehensively dedicated to the electoral framework of the nation. It encompasses Articles 324 through 329, which collectively provide the foundational, legal bedrock for conducting free, fair, and impartial elections in the world’s largest democracy.
- Article 324 and the Commission: The most critical provision within this part is Article 324, which explicitly vests the absolute power of superintendence, direction, and control of all elections to Parliament and the State Legislatures directly in the hands of an independent, autonomous body known as the Election Commission of India.
- Universal Adult Suffrage: Part XV also contains Article 326, which guarantees the fundamental principle of universal adult suffrage. This ensures that every citizen of India who is of voting age is legally entitled to be registered as a voter, strictly prohibiting any form of discrimination based on religion, race, caste, or sex in the preparation of electoral rolls.
π Polity β’ Constitutional Amendments
Q.12) The Anti-Defection Law was added to the Constitution by the 52nd Amendment Act in which year?
Ans > 1985
- Context of Political Instability: Prior to 1985, Indian politics was plagued by a notorious culture of rampant political defections, famously dubbed the “Aaya Ram Gaya Ram” phenomenon. Legislators frequently switched party loyalties for monetary gain or ministerial positions, leading to the frequent collapse of elected state governments and widespread political instability.
- Passage of the 52nd Amendment: To combat this severe democratic crisis, the government led by Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi passed the 52nd Constitutional Amendment Act in 1985. This landmark legislation officially embedded the Anti-Defection Law into the Indian Constitution by adding a completely new Tenth Schedule, laying down the strict rules for disqualifying defecting members.
- Core Provisions: The core principle of the law dictates that a Member of Parliament or State Legislature can be summarily disqualified if they voluntarily give up the membership of their original political party, or if they vote (or abstain from voting) in the legislature contrary to the explicit directives issued by their party whip.
π Polity β’ Anti-Defection Law
Q.13) The 91st Constitutional Amendment Act (2003) altered the anti-defection law by deleting the provision that protected members from disqualification in the event of a:
Ans > Split
- The Loophole of ‘Splits’: In the original 1985 Anti-Defection Law, there was a specific exemption clause that protected legislators from disqualification if at least one-third of the elected members of a political party defected simultaneously. This was legally recognized as a “split” in the party, but in practice, it merely institutionalized mass defections instead of individual ones.
- The 91st Amendment Fix: Realizing that the ‘split’ provision was being grossly misused to topple governments, the Parliament passed the 91st Constitutional Amendment Act in 2003. This amendment completely deleted the one-third ‘split’ exemption, making mass defections significantly harder and tightening the overall grip of the anti-defection framework.
- Current Merger Rules: While the ‘split’ exemption was removed, the 2003 amendment retained the protection for a “merger.” Under the current legal framework, legislators are only protected from anti-defection disqualification if a massive two-thirds (2/3) of the members of a legislative party agree to seamlessly merge with another political party.
π Polity β’ Anti-Defection Law
Q.14) Under the Tenth Schedule, the question of whether a member has become subject to disqualification on the ground of defection is decided by the:
Ans > Presiding officer of the House
- Authority of the Presiding Officer: According to the explicit provisions outlined in the Tenth Schedule of the Indian Constitution, the sole authority to decide on petitions regarding the disqualification of a member rests with the Presiding Officer. This means the Speaker of the Lok Sabha or State Assembly, or the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha or State Council.
- Concerns Over Partisanship: This immense concentration of adjudicatory power has frequently been a subject of intense political controversy. Because the Presiding Officer is typically a member of the ruling political party, critics often accuse them of exhibiting severe partisan biasβacting swiftly against opposition defectors while deliberately stalling petitions against those joining the ruling party.
- No Prescribed Time Limit: A major legal loophole within the Tenth Schedule is that it does not prescribe any mandatory, legally binding timeframe within which the Presiding Officer must decide a defection petition. This has led to numerous instances where Speakers have sat on disqualification petitions for years, effectively allowing defectors to complete their elected terms unpunished.
π Polity β’ Judiciary / Anti-Defection
Q.15) In the Kihoto Hollohan case (1992), the Supreme Court ruled that the decision of the presiding officer regarding disqualification under the Tenth Schedule is:
Ans > Subject to judicial review
- Striking Down Paragraph 7: When the Tenth Schedule was originally enacted in 1985, its Paragraph 7 explicitly barred the jurisdiction of all courts, including the Supreme Court, in matters connected to the disqualification of members. In the landmark Kihoto Hollohan vs. Zachillhu case (1992), the Supreme Court fundamentally struck down this specific paragraph as unconstitutional.
- Presiding Officer as a Tribunal: The Supreme Court logically reasoned that when the Speaker or Chairman decides on a disqualification petition, they are effectively functioning as a statutory tribunal. Consequently, their final decisions must logically be subject to the judicial review of the High Courts and the Supreme Court under the basic structure of the Constitution.
- Limits on Judicial Intervention: However, the Supreme Court also carefully clarified that judicial review should not occur prior to the Speaker making a final decision. Courts cannot preemptively intervene in the procedural stages of the disqualification proceedings; they can only review the final order to check for jurisdictional errors, mala fides, or violations of natural justice.
π Polity β’ Political Parties
Q.16) Which authority registers political parties for the purpose of elections and grants them recognition as national or state parties on the basis of their poll performance?
Ans > The Election Commission of India
- Statutory Authority: The Election Commission of India derives its absolute authority to register political parties from Section 29A of the Representation of the People Act, 1951. Any association or body of individual citizens calling itself a political party must formally apply to the Commission within 30 days of its formation to be legally registered.
- The Symbols Order: The subsequent recognition of these registered parties as “National” or “State” parties is governed entirely by the Election Symbols (Reservation and Allotment) Order, 1968. The Election Commission periodically reviews the poll performance of all registered parties after every general election to grant or withdraw this coveted status based on strict numerical criteria.
- Benefits of Recognition: Achieving recognized status from the Election Commission unlocks a host of critical electoral advantages. Recognized parties are granted the exclusive allotment of a permanent reserved election symbol, receive free subsidized broadcast time on state-run television and radio during campaigns, and are permitted a larger quota of “star campaigners” whose travel expenses don’t count towards the candidate’s limit.
π Polity β’ Political Parties
Q.17) To be recognized as a National Party, a political party must secure at least 2% of the seats in the Lok Sabha, and these members must be elected from at least how many different states?
Ans > Three
- The 2% Rule Explained: According to the strict criteria laid down by the Election Commission, one of the three alternative pathways for a political party to achieve ‘National Party’ status is by winning at least 2% of the total seats in the Lok Sabha (which currently equates to 11 seats out of 543) during a general election.
- The Three-State Condition: Crucially, this rule comes with a strict geographic caveat. A party cannot simply win all 11 seats from a single densely populated state. The elected members must be drawn from a minimum of three distinct states, ensuring that a National Party genuinely possesses a geographically widespread, cross-regional political footprint.
- Alternative Pathways: If a party fails the 2% seat test, it can still become a National Party through two other methods: by securing 6% of the valid votes polled in four or more states plus winning four Lok Sabha seats, or by simply being officially recognized as a ‘State Party’ in four or more distinct states.
π Polity β’ Political Dynamics
Q.18) The concept of ‘Pressure Group’βan organization that seeks to influence government policies without contesting electionsβoriginated in which country?
Ans > United States of America
- Origin and Definition: The specific political concept of the ‘Pressure Group’ first originated and structurally evolved within the democratic framework of the United States of America. It describes highly organized bodies of individuals who actively seek to protect and advance their specific collective interests by heavily influencing public policy and legislation.
- Distinction from Political Parties: The fundamental difference between a political party and a pressure group lies in their ultimate political objectives. While political parties actively contest elections with the direct aim of capturing and wielding government power, pressure groups deliberately stay out of electoral contests, functioning purely as lobbying entities seeking favorable government decisions.
- Methods of Operation: Pressure groups operate through various sophisticated techniques, broadly known as lobbying. These techniques include funding political campaigns, organizing massive public protests, drafting specialized legislation for friendly lawmakers, leveraging media narratives, and directly negotiating with key bureaucrats and elected officials to secure their specialized interests.
π Polity β’ Pressure Groups
Q.19) The Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI) and ASSOCHAM are prominent examples of which type of pressure group in India?
Ans > Business Groups
- Corporate Advocacy: Both FICCI and ASSOCHAM are quintessential examples of business or corporate pressure groups operating within India. They represent the collective, unified voices of massive industrial houses, private corporations, and business entrepreneurs, consistently working to safeguard and heavily promote the overarching interests of the Indian private sector.
- Influence on Economic Policy: These highly powerful organizations exert immense structural influence on the economic trajectory of the nation. They routinely lobby the Ministry of Finance during the preparation of the Union Budget, advocate for corporate tax reductions, push for the deregulation of stringent labor laws, and heavily shape India’s foreign trade policies.
- Historical Legacy of FICCI: FICCI is particularly notable for its deep historical roots, having been established in 1927 by prominent Indian industrialists G.D. Birla and Purshottamdas Thakurdas, significantly based on the direct advice of Mahatma Gandhi. It originally served to protect indigenous Indian business interests against the monopolistic, predatory policies of the British colonial administration.
π Polity β’ Trade Unions
Q.20) The Indian National Trade Union Congress (INTUC) is a major trade union historically affiliated with which political party?
Ans > Indian National Congress (INC)
- Founding and Affiliation: The Indian National Trade Union Congress (INTUC) is a massive national trade union center explicitly and historically affiliated with the Indian National Congress (INC). It was formally established in May 1947, mere months before India achieved its independence, to act as the primary labor wing of the Congress party.
- Ideological Counterweight: The formation of INTUC was highly strategic; it was heavily championed by prominent nationalist leaders like Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and J.B. Kripalani. Their primary objective was to create a robust, nationalist alternative to counter the rapidly growing influence of the communist-dominated AITUC within the Indian labor movement during the volatile pre-independence era.
- Influence and Approach: Over the decades, INTUC grew to become one of the largest and most politically influential trade union organizations in India. Ideologically, it traditionally advocates for a more collaborative, negotiation-based approach to resolving intense labor disputes, often favoring dialogue with government and management over immediate, disruptive militant strike action.
π Polity β’ Trade Unions
Q.21) The Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangh (BMS) is a prominent trade union affiliated with the ideology of which organization/party?
Ans > RSS / BJP
- Establishment by Dattopant Thengadi: The Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangh (BMS) was founded on July 23, 1955, by the prominent visionary Dattopant Thengadi. Thengadi was a deeply committed, full-time senior pracharak (activist) of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), firmly embedding the union within the broader ideological umbrella of the Sangh Parivar from its inception.
- Ideological Independence from Parties: While inextricably linked to the ideological framework of the RSS and sharing deep sympathies with the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), the BMS uniquely prides itself on not being formally or legally affiliated with any specific political party. It frequently claims to prioritize pure labor interests above partisan political directives.
- Current Scale and Philosophy: Today, the BMS stands as one of the largest and most formidable trade union confederations in India. It officially operates on the ideological principle of ‘Nationalistic Trade Unionism’, famously promoting slogans that emphasize national interest first, industry interest second, and labor interest third, actively opposing purely Marxist concepts of class struggle.
π Polity β’ Trade Unions
Q.22) The All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC), one of the oldest trade unions in India, is affiliated with which political party?
Ans > CPI
- Historical Origins: The All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) holds the distinct historical honor of being the oldest continuously operating trade union federation in India. It was founded in 1920 in Bombay, primarily to ensure that Indian labor interests were adequately represented at the newly formed International Labour Organization (ILO) of the League of Nations.
- Early Nationalist Leadership: In its early formative years, AITUC was not exclusively communist; it served as a broad, unified umbrella organization for the entire Indian labor movement. Its inaugural session was famously presided over by the legendary nationalist leader Lala Lajpat Rai, and it saw active participation from prominent Congress figures like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose.
- Communist Domination and Affiliation: By the late 1920s and early 1930s, the ideological control of AITUC gradually but decisively shifted into the hands of communist leaders. Following multiple internal splits over the subsequent decades, AITUC eventually became formally and permanently affiliated with the Communist Party of India (CPI), serving as its primary mobilized labor front.
π Polity β’ National Integration
Q.23) The National Integration Council (NIC) is an extra-constitutional body set up to find ways to combat communalism, casteism, and regionalism. In which year was it constituted for the first time?
Ans > 1961
- Context of Formation: The National Integration Council (NIC) was fundamentally conceptualized and constituted for the very first time in 1961 by Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. The urgent catalyst for its creation was a sudden, violent outbreak of severe communal riots in Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, which deeply alarmed the political leadership of newly independent India.
- Nature of the Body: It is crucial to note that the NIC is entirely an extra-constitutional and non-statutory advisory body. It possesses no legal backing in the Indian Constitution or any act of Parliament; rather, it functions as a high-level socio-political forum dedicated exclusively to identifying and combating the divisive forces of communalism, casteism, and regionalism.
- Irregular Functioning: Despite its lofty and critical mandate to preserve the unity of the nation, the history of the NIC is marked by extreme irregularity. It has been dissolved, reconstituted, and revived multiple times by various incoming governments, and it frequently goes for many consecutive years without convening a single meeting.
π Polity β’ National Integration
Q.24) Who serves as the Chairman of the National Integration Council (NIC)?
Ans > The Prime Minister
- Leadership Structure: The Prime Minister of India officially serves as the ex-officio Chairman of the National Integration Council. This apex leadership position is meant to underscore the immense national importance of the council’s mandate, demonstrating the highest level of executive commitment to maintaining communal harmony and national unity.
- Diverse Composition: Beyond the Prime Minister, the council boasts an incredibly broad and highly diverse membership structure. It typically includes senior Union Cabinet Ministers, the Chief Ministers of all Indian states and Union Territories, the leaders of major national and regional political parties, and the heads of prominent national commissions.
- Civil Society Representation: To ensure that the council does not merely reflect governmental views, it explicitly includes prominent members of civil society. The Prime Minister traditionally nominates eminent public figures, reputed journalists, respected business leaders, and influential social activists to provide grassroots perspectives on tackling dangerous divisive trends in society.
π Polity β’ Foreign Policy
Q.25) ‘Panchsheel’, the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence that became a cornerstone of India’s foreign policy, was formulated in 1954 in an agreement between India and:
Ans > China
- The 1954 Agreement: The historic concept of Panchsheel was formally enshrined in the “Agreement on Trade and Intercourse between the Tibet region of China and India,” signed in Beijing on April 29, 1954. The agreement was negotiated between Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai, hoping to usher in an era of Asian solidarity.
- The Five Core Principles: Panchsheel consists of five foundational tenets for international relations: 1) Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty, 2) Mutual non-aggression, 3) Mutual non-interference in each other’s internal affairs, 4) Equality and mutual benefit, and 5) Peaceful co-existence.
- Global Impact and Subsequent Failure: While Panchsheel was rapidly adopted by the broader Non-Aligned Movement as a universal model for international diplomacy, its original purpose failed catastrophically. The underlying trust between India and China rapidly deteriorated over border disputes and the Dalai Lama’s asylum, culminating in the disastrous Sino-Indian War of 1962, deeply shattering Nehru’s diplomatic vision.
π Polity β’ Foreign Policy
Q.26) Which doctrine in India’s foreign policy, formulated in 1996, advocates that India should not ask for reciprocity from its immediate smaller neighbors but give in good faith?
Ans > Gujral Doctrine
- Origin of the Doctrine: The Gujral Doctrine was formulated in 1996 by I.K. Gujral, who was serving as the Minister of External Affairs in the H.D. Deve Gowda-led United Front coalition government. It represented a massive, foundational shift in how India managed its complex diplomatic relationships within the highly volatile South Asian neighborhood.
- The Principle of Non-Reciprocity: The core defining principle of this famous doctrine is absolute non-reciprocity. It explicitly advocates that, as the overwhelmingly largest nation in South Asia, India should not demand transactional, tit-for-tat reciprocity from smaller neighbors like Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, and Sri Lanka, but should instead unilaterally offer concessions in good faith.
- Successes and Legacy: The implementation of the Gujral Doctrine yielded several significant, tangible diplomatic breakthroughs in the late 90s, including the historic 1996 signing of the Ganga Water Sharing Treaty with Bangladesh. It successfully helped reduce regional paranoia regarding Indian hegemony, fostering a climate of greater regional trust and cooperative economic development.
π Polity β’ Foreign Policy
Q.27) India’s “Look East” policy, aimed at cultivating extensive economic and strategic relations with Southeast Asia, was launched in 1992 under the premiership of:
Ans > P.V. Narasimha Rao
- Geopolitical Catalysts: The “Look East” policy was launched in 1992 by Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao as a direct, urgent response to two massive simultaneous crises: the abrupt collapse of the Soviet Union (India’s primary defense and trade partner) and a devastating domestic balance of payments economic crisis that brought India to the brink of default.
- Economic Reorientation: The primary initial objective of the policy was heavily economic. India sought to systematically break out of its Cold War-era isolationism and actively integrate its newly liberalizing domestic economy with the rapidly booming “Tiger economies” of the vibrant Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) region.
- Strategic Evolution: Over the subsequent decades, through the administrations of Atal Bihari Vajpayee and Manmohan Singh, the Look East policy naturally evolved beyond mere trade and commerce. It increasingly incorporated deeper security ties, joint naval exercises, and strategic partnerships, as India slowly sought to counterbalance the rapidly expanding, aggressive footprint of China in the Asia-Pacific.
π Polity β’ Foreign Policy
Q.28) The “Look East” policy was subsequently upgraded to the “Act East” policy under the administration of which Prime Minister?
Ans > Narendra Modi
- The 2014 Upgrade: During the 12th ASEAN-India Summit held in Myanmar in November 2014, Prime Minister Narendra Modi officially announced the ambitious upgrading of the two-decade-old “Look East” policy into a more dynamic, action-oriented diplomatic framework specifically branded as the “Act East” policy.
- Shift from Economic to Strategic: While “Look East” was primarily focused on fostering trade, the “Act East” policy deliberately shifts the focus heavily toward strategic, security, and defense cooperation. It aims to firmly position India as a net security provider in the broader Indo-Pacific region, actively aligning with global powers like the US, Japan, and Australia.
- Emphasis on the Northeast: A crucial, defining component of the “Act East” doctrine is its heavy domestic focus on the physical connectivity and rapid economic development of India’s remote Northeastern states. By treating the Northeast as the vital geographic and cultural gateway to Southeast Asia, the government has fast-tracked massive transnational infrastructure projects like the Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project.
π Polity β’ Foreign Policy
Q.29) The first summit of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), of which India was a founding member, was held in 1961 in which city?
Ans > Belgrade
- The Belgrade Summit: The very first official summit conference of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) was held in September 1961 in Belgrade, which was then the capital of Yugoslavia. The summit successfully gathered representatives from 25 developing nations who were determined to remain independent from the dominant global power blocs.
- The Founding Fathers: The creation of NAM was driven by the unified vision of five charismatic world leaders, often referred to as the founding fathers of the movement: Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru of India, President Josip Broz Tito of Yugoslavia, President Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt, President Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana, and President Sukarno of Indonesia.
- Core Ideology: The fundamental driving ideology of NAM was to forge a united, independent path for newly decolonized nations during the intense hostility of the Cold War. The movement explicitly opposed aligning with either the US-led capitalist bloc or the Soviet-led communist bloc, dedicating itself instead to fierce anti-colonialism, anti-imperialism, and the promotion of global peace.
π Polity β’ Defense & Foreign Policy
Q.30) India formally adopted a comprehensive Nuclear Doctrine in which year, establishing a “No First Use” posture?
Ans > 2003
- Post-Pokhran II Formalization: Following the internationally controversial Pokhran-II nuclear weapons tests conducted in 1998, India required a formalized framework to manage its new arsenal. In January 2003, the Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS) officially reviewed and formally adopted India’s comprehensive nuclear doctrine, explicitly defining its operational and strategic parameters to the global community.
- The “No First Use” Principle: The absolute cornerstone of this 2003 doctrine is the strict “No First Use” (NFU) policy. India legally committed that it will never be the first to initiate a nuclear strike against another nation, reserving the use of nuclear weapons purely as a retaliatory measure against a prior nuclear attack on Indian territory or on Indian forces anywhere.
- Massive Retaliation and Command: While adopting NFU, the doctrine simultaneously warns that any nuclear retaliation to a first strike will be “massive and designed to inflict unacceptable damage.” Furthermore, the doctrine firmly establishes that the ultimate authority to authorize this devastating nuclear retaliation rests exclusively with the civilian political leadership, specifically the Prime Minister via the Nuclear Command Authority.
π Quick Summary β Indian Polity Set 91
- Elections: VVPAT was first deployed in the Noksen constituency of Nagaland in 2013.
- Electoral Reforms: The Tarkunde Committee (1974-75) was appointed by Jayaprakash Narayan (Citizens For Democracy).
- Electoral Funding: The Indrajit Gupta Committee (1998) examined the feasibility of state funding of elections.
- Constitutional Review: The NCRWC (2000) was headed by Justice M.N. Venkatachaliah.
- First Elections: The first general elections to the Lok Sabha were held during 1951-1952.
- Voting Age: The 61st Amendment reducing the voting age to 18 came into force in 1989.
- Proxy Voting: Introduced in 2003 specifically for Classified Service Voters (Armed forces).
- NOTA Option: Introduced by the Election Commission following a 2013 Supreme Court directive.
- Election Expenses: The Central Government in consultation with the Election Commission fixes maximum limits.
- Voters’ Day: Celebrated on January 25, the foundation day of the Election Commission.
- Constitution: Part XV is entirely dedicated to Elections and the Election Commission.
- Anti-Defection Law: Added to the Constitution via the 52nd Amendment Act in 1985.
- 91st Amendment: Altered the anti-defection law in 2003 by deleting the protection for a “split”.
- Tenth Schedule: Disqualification on grounds of defection is decided by the Presiding officer of the House.
- Judicial Review: The Kihoto Hollohan case (1992) ruled the presiding officer’s decision is subject to judicial review.
- Political Parties: The Election Commission registers parties and grants national/state recognition.
- National Party Criteria: Requires winning at least 2% of Lok Sabha seats from a minimum of three different states.
- Pressure Groups: The concept originated in the United States of America.
- Business Groups: FICCI and ASSOCHAM are prominent examples of business pressure groups in India.
- Trade Unions: INTUC is historically affiliated with the Indian National Congress (INC).
- BMS Affiliation: The Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangh is affiliated with the ideology of the RSS/BJP.
- AITUC Affiliation: The All India Trade Union Congress is affiliated with the CPI.
- National Integration: The National Integration Council (NIC) was first constituted in 1961.
- NIC Chairman: The Prime Minister of India serves as the Chairman of the NIC.
- Panchsheel: Formulated in 1954 through an agreement between India and China.
- Foreign Policy: The Gujral Doctrine (1996) advocates non-reciprocity from immediate smaller neighbors.
- Look East Policy: Launched in 1992 under the premiership of P.V. Narasimha Rao.
- Act East Policy: The “Look East” policy was upgraded under Prime Minister Narendra Modi.
- NAM Summit: The first Non-Aligned Movement summit was held in Belgrade in 1961.
- Nuclear Doctrine: India formally adopted its comprehensive doctrine with a “No First Use” posture in 2003.
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