Polity Set 90
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📌 Executive • President & Governor
Q.1) Which of the following pardoning powers is possessed ONLY by the President of India and NOT by the Governor of a state?
Ans > Pardon of a death sentence
- Death Penalty Pardon Exclusivity: Under Article 72 of the Indian Constitution, the President of India has the exclusive and absolute power to grant a complete pardon for a death sentence. The Governor of a state, operating under Article 161, cannot pardon a death sentence under any circumstances, even if the individual was convicted strictly under a state law.
- Military Court Martial Sentences: The President also holds the sole authority to pardon, remit, or commute sentences inflicted by a Court Martial (military court). State Governors possess absolutely no such powers or jurisdiction regarding military court decisions or personnel.
- Scope of Executive Power: The President’s pardoning power extends to all cases where the punishment or sentence is for an offence against a Union Law. Conversely, the Governor’s pardoning power is strictly limited to offences against State Laws where the state executive power extends.
📌 Executive • Ordinance Power
Q.2) The ordinance-making power of the President is articulated under which Article of the Constitution?
Ans > Article 123
- Purpose of Ordinance Power: Article 123 empowers the President to promulgate Ordinances specifically during the recess of Parliament. This mechanism is designed to handle unforeseen, urgent, or emergency matters that require immediate legislative action when both Houses of Parliament are not in session.
- Legislative Parity and Limitations: An ordinance holds the exact same force, effect, and authority as a regular Act of Parliament. However, it is inherently temporary in nature and can only be issued on subjects over which Parliament inherently has the power to make laws (Union and Concurrent lists).
- Strict Expiration Timeline: Ordinances automatically cease to operate at the expiration of six weeks from the reassembly of Parliament. If both Houses pass resolutions disapproving the ordinance before this six-week period ends, the ordinance lapses even earlier.
📌 Executive • President’s Qualifications
Q.3) What is the minimum age prescribed for a person to be eligible for election as the President of India?
Ans > 35 years
- Constitutional Mandate: Article 58 of the Indian Constitution lays down the specific qualifications for election as President, clearly stating that a candidate must have completed the age of 35 years to be eligible for the highest office in the country.
- Comparative Age Requirements: This 35-year age threshold is the highest minimum age requirement in the Indian political system, shared only with the office of the Vice-President and state Governors. In contrast, the minimum age for a Lok Sabha member (and Prime Minister) is 25, while a Rajya Sabha member must be at least 30.
- Additional Mandatory Qualifications: Beyond the age requirement, the candidate must be a citizen of India, must be qualified for election as a member of the Lok Sabha, and must not hold any office of profit under the Union, State, or local governments.
📌 Executive • Impeachment
Q.4) The procedure for the impeachment of the President for ‘violation of the Constitution’ is provided in which Article?
Ans > Article 61
- Sole Ground for Impeachment: Article 61 states that the President can only be impeached on one specific ground: “violation of the Constitution.” Interestingly, the Constitution does not define what actually constitutes a “violation,” leaving it to the interpretation of the Parliament.
- Initiation of the Process: The impeachment charges can be initiated by either House of Parliament (Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha). The initiating resolution requires a 14-day prior written notice signed by at least one-fourth of the total members of that specific House.
- Special Majority Requirement: The impeachment process requires a very strict special majority. The resolution must be passed by a majority of not less than two-thirds of the total membership of the House (not just members present and voting), making it incredibly difficult to remove a President.
📌 Parliament • Legislative Procedure
Q.5) Which Article provides for a joint sitting of both Houses of Parliament to resolve a deadlock over an ordinary bill?
Ans > Article 108
- Conditions Triggering a Deadlock: Article 108 allows the President to summon a joint sitting if, after a bill passes one House, the other House rejects it, completely disagrees with the amendments, or lets more than six months elapse without passing the bill.
- Exclusions to the Rule: Joint sittings are strictly limited to ordinary bills and financial bills. They cannot be summoned to resolve deadlocks over Money Bills (where Lok Sabha has supreme authority) or Constitutional Amendment Bills (which must be passed by both Houses separately).
- Presiding Officer and Voting: The Speaker of the Lok Sabha presides over the joint sitting. If absent, the Deputy Speaker takes charge. The disputed bill is passed if it secures a simple majority of the total number of members of both Houses present and voting.
📌 Parliament • Rajya Sabha
Q.6) Who serves as the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha?
Ans > The Vice-President
- Constitutional Design: Article 64 and Article 89 of the Constitution explicitly declare that the Vice-President of India shall be the ex-officio Chairman of the Council of States (Rajya Sabha), meaning they hold the chairmanship by virtue of holding the Vice-Presidential office.
- American Constitutional Influence: This specific setup is heavily borrowed from the American Constitution, where the Vice-President of the United States similarly serves as the President of the Senate. This provides the Vice-President with a continuous functional role.
- Voting Rights and Salary: As Chairman, the Vice-President does not vote in the first instance since they are not an actual member of the Rajya Sabha. They only cast a deciding vote in the event of a tie. Furthermore, they draw their regular salary in their capacity as Chairman, not as Vice-President.
📌 Parliament • Sessions
Q.7) According to the Constitution, the maximum gap between two sessions of the Parliament cannot be more than:
Ans > 6 months
- Constitutional Requirement: Article 85 dictates that the President shall summon each House of Parliament to meet, but the intervening period between the last sitting in one session and the date appointed for its first sitting in the next session shall not exceed six months.
- Minimum Annual Meetings: Because of this strict six-month limitation, the Indian Parliament is constitutionally compelled to meet at least twice a year to ensure continuous legislative oversight and executive accountability to the elected representatives.
- Conventional Session Structure: While the Constitution mandates a maximum six-month gap, parliamentary convention in India usually features three distinct sessions annually: the Budget Session (February-May), the Monsoon Session (July-September), and the Winter Session (November-December).
📌 Parliament • Quorum
Q.8) What is the quorum required to hold a meeting in the Lok Sabha?
Ans > 55 members (One-tenth of total membership)
- Definition and Necessity: A quorum is the minimum number of members required to be physically present in the House to validly transact any parliamentary business. Article 100 of the Constitution fixes this at one-tenth of the total membership of the House.
- Inclusion of Presiding Officer: This one-tenth calculation explicitly includes the presiding officer (the Speaker or whoever is acting in that capacity). For the Lok Sabha, 10% of the total 543 members equates to a required presence of 55 members.
- Duty of the Presiding Officer: If there is no quorum at any point during a meeting of a House, the Constitution places a mandatory duty on the Speaker or Chairman to either adjourn the House completely or suspend the meeting until a proper quorum is achieved.
📌 Parliament • Legislative Bills
Q.9) The definition of a ‘Money Bill’ is provided in which Article of the Constitution?
Ans > Article 110
- Strict Subject Matter Requirements: Article 110 states that a bill is deemed a Money Bill only if it contains provisions dealing exclusively with taxation, the borrowing of money by the government, or the custody of the Consolidated Fund or Contingency Fund of India.
- Specific Exclusions: A bill is explicitly not considered a Money Bill if it solely provides for the imposition of fines, pecuniary penalties, the demand of fees for licenses or services rendered, or any local tax imposed by a local authority for local purposes.
- Legislative Supremacy: Money Bills can only be introduced in the Lok Sabha (the lower house representing the people directly) and strictly require the prior recommendation of the President before they can be officially presented to the parliament.
📌 Parliament • Lok Sabha Speaker
Q.10) Whose decision is final in determining whether a bill is a Money Bill or not?
Ans > The Speaker of the Lok Sabha
- Absolute Authority: According to Article 110(3) of the Constitution, if any question arises as to whether a specific piece of legislation is a Money Bill or not, the decision of the Speaker of the Lok Sabha is final and binding.
- Certification Process: When a Money Bill is transmitted to the Rajya Sabha for its recommendations, and subsequently presented to the President for assent, the Speaker must endorse it with a signed certificate officially classifying it as a Money Bill.
- Limits of Judicial Review: Historically, the Speaker’s certification was considered entirely immune from judicial review. However, recent Supreme Court judgments (such as in the Aadhaar Act case) have indicated that the Speaker’s decision can be subject to judicial review under specific, exceptional circumstances of constitutional violation.
📌 Parliament • Budget
Q.11) The term ‘budget’ is nowhere used in the Constitution. Instead, Article 112 refers to it as the:
Ans > Annual Financial Statement
- Constitutional Nomenclature: The popular term “budget” is entirely absent from the text of the Indian Constitution. Under Article 112, the document is officially and legally designated as the “Annual Financial Statement” of the Union Government.
- Core Contents: The Annual Financial Statement is a detailed document that lays out the estimated receipts and expenditures of the Government of India for the ensuing financial year, which runs from April 1st to March 31st of the following calendar year.
- Presidential Responsibility: The Constitution formally tasks the President of India with the responsibility of ensuring that this Annual Financial Statement is laid before both Houses of Parliament, though in practice, this duty is executed by the Union Finance Minister.
📌 Parliament • Committees
Q.12) The Public Accounts Committee (PAC) of Parliament consists of how many members?
Ans > 22
- Bicameral Composition: The Public Accounts Committee (PAC) consists of exactly 22 members, representing both houses of Parliament. Of these, 15 members are elected from the Lok Sabha and 7 members are elected from the Rajya Sabha, ensuring broad representation.
- Historical Legacy: The PAC is the oldest parliamentary committee in India. It was first set up in 1921 under the provisions of the Government of India Act 1919 (Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms) and has been in continuous existence ever since.
- Primary Function and Leadership: The PAC’s main role is to examine the annual audit reports submitted by the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG). By convention established in 1967, the Chairman of the PAC is always appointed from the official opposition party.
📌 Parliament • Committees
Q.13) Which is the largest committee of the Parliament, consisting of 30 members all chosen from the Lok Sabha?
Ans > Estimates Committee
- Exclusive Lower House Representation: The Estimates Committee is entirely unique because it is the only major financial committee where all 30 members are drawn exclusively from the Lok Sabha. The Rajya Sabha has no representation whatsoever on this committee.
- Origins and Mandate: It was constituted for the first time in the post-independence era in 1950, based on the recommendation of then-Finance Minister John Mathai. Its primary function is to examine budget estimates and suggest “economies” in public expenditure.
- Ministerial Exclusion: To maintain complete objectivity and parliamentary oversight over the executive branch, a minister cannot be elected as a member of the Estimates Committee. The Chairman is appointed by the Speaker, invariably from the ruling party.
📌 Judiciary • Supreme Court
Q.14) Part V of the Constitution deals with the establishment, jurisdiction, and powers of the Supreme Court under which Articles?
Ans > Articles 124 to 147
- Integrated Judicial System: Unlike the American system which has a bifurcated judiciary, India operates under a single integrated judicial system. Articles 124 to 147 in Part V (The Union) comprehensively lay down the foundation for the apex court of this system.
- Scope of the Articles: These articles cover everything from the establishment and constitution of the Supreme Court (Article 124), to the salaries of judges, the appointment of ad-hoc judges, and the various types of jurisdiction (original, appellate, and advisory) the court wields.
- Parliamentary Regulation: While the Constitution establishes the Supreme Court, it grants the Parliament the authority to regulate its organization, jurisdiction, and powers to a certain extent, allowing the judicial framework to adapt to changing legal needs over time.
📌 Judiciary • Supreme Court Judges
Q.15) A judge of the Supreme Court holds office until they attain the age of:
Ans > 65 years
- No Fixed Tenure: The Constitution does not prescribe a fixed tenure (like 5 or 6 years) for Supreme Court judges. Instead, under Article 124(2), a judge holds office until they reach the mandatory retirement age of 65 years.
- Contrast with High Courts: This retirement age is specifically higher than that of High Court judges, who currently retire at the age of 62 years (originally 60, raised by the 15th Constitutional Amendment in 1963).
- Resignation and Removal: Before reaching the age of 65, a Supreme Court judge can willingly resign their office by writing to the President. Alternatively, they can be forcibly removed by the President on the grounds of proven misbehaviour or incapacity, but only after a complex parliamentary impeachment process.
📌 Judiciary • SC Jurisdiction
Q.16) Which Article gives the Supreme Court original and exclusive jurisdiction over disputes between the Centre and the states?
Ans > Article 131
- Federal Dispute Resolution: Article 131 empowers the Supreme Court to act as the ultimate federal court. It grants original jurisdiction to hear disputes between the Government of India and one or more states, or disputes entirely between two or more state governments.
- Exclusive Power: This jurisdiction is “exclusive,” meaning no other court in India (no High Court or lower court) has the authority to entertain or adjudicate these fundamental federal disputes. They must be filed directly in the Supreme Court.
- Legal Rights Limitation: For a dispute to qualify under Article 131, it must strictly involve a question of law or fact on which the existence or extent of a legal right depends. Political disputes or purely ideological disagreements between governments are strictly excluded.
📌 Judiciary • Advisory Jurisdiction
Q.17) Which Article authorises the President to seek the advisory opinion of the Supreme Court?
Ans > Article 143
- Consultative Mechanism: Article 143 allows the President of India to refer any question of law or fact of public importance that has arisen, or is likely to arise, to the Supreme Court for its expert consideration and advisory opinion.
- Non-Binding Nature: The opinion expressed by the Supreme Court under this jurisdiction is purely advisory. The President is not legally bound to accept or act upon the advice given by the Court, preserving the separation of powers.
- Court’s Discretion: When a reference is made regarding matters of public importance, the Supreme Court is not bound to give its opinion; it can respectfully decline to answer. However, if the dispute involves pre-constitution treaties, the Court is obligated to tender its opinion.
📌 State Executive • Governor
Q.18) What is the minimum age prescribed by the Constitution for a person to be appointed as the Governor of a state?
Ans > 35 years
- Constitutional Benchmark: Article 157 sets out the foundational qualifications for the appointment of a State Governor. It specifically mandates that no person shall be eligible unless they are a citizen of India and have completed the age of 35 years.
- Alignment with Presidency: This 35-year age requirement perfectly mirrors the age requirement for the President of India, reflecting the Governor’s role as the constitutional head of the state executive, parallel to the President’s role at the Union level.
- Established Conventions: While the Constitution only requires citizenship and age, political conventions dictate two additional unwritten rules: the appointee should be an “outsider” (not belonging to the state they are appointed to) and the President should consult the state’s Chief Minister before finalizing the appointment.
📌 State Executive • Ordinance Power
Q.19) The ordinance-making power of the Governor is provided under which Article?
Ans > Article 213
- State-Level Emergency Legislation: Article 213 grants the Governor of a state the power to promulgate ordinances during the recess of the state legislature. This perfectly parallels the President’s ordinance-making power at the central level under Article 123.
- Subject Matter Constraints: The Governor can only issue ordinances on subjects that fall strictly within the legislative competence of the state legislature (i.e., the State List and the Concurrent List), and cannot infringe upon the Union List.
- Presidential Override: In certain specific cases, the Governor cannot issue an ordinance without prior instructions from the President. This applies if a similar bill would have required the President’s prior sanction for introduction, or if the Governor would have deemed it necessary to reserve the bill for Presidential consideration.
📌 State Executive • Chief Minister
Q.20) According to Article 164, the Chief Minister of a state is appointed by the:
Ans > Governor
- Formal Appointment Process: Article 164 states simply that “the Chief Minister shall be appointed by the Governor.” However, the Governor cannot act arbitrarily; by parliamentary convention, they must invite the leader of the majority party in the State Legislative Assembly to form the government.
- Discretion in Hung Assemblies: The Governor’s true discretionary power in this appointment arises only when no single party secures a clear majority (a hung assembly) or when a Chief Minister dies suddenly in office without an obvious successor available.
- Holding Office on Pleasure: Technically, Article 164 states the Chief Minister holds office “during the pleasure of the Governor.” However, the Supreme Court has clarified this does not mean the Governor can dismiss the CM at will, as long as the CM enjoys majority support in the Assembly.
📌 State Legislature • Legislative Assembly
Q.21) The minimum strength of a State Legislative Assembly is generally fixed at:
Ans > 60
- Constitutional Population Brackets: Article 170 of the Constitution dictates the composition of State Legislative Assemblies (Vidhan Sabhas), stating that they shall consist of not more than 500 and not less than 60 members chosen by direct election from territorial constituencies.
- Exceptions for Smaller States: Due to incredibly low population densities or geographical constraints, the Constitution allows explicit exceptions to this rule. States like Goa (40), Mizoram (40), and Sikkim (32) have assemblies with fewer than the minimum 60 members.
- Territorial Constituency Division: For the purpose of these direct elections, each state is divided into territorial constituencies. The ratio between the population of each constituency and the number of seats allotted to it is kept as uniform as practicable across the entire state.
📌 State Legislature • Legislative Assembly
Q.22) The maximum strength of a State Legislative Assembly is fixed by the Constitution at:
Ans > 500
- Preventing Unmanageable Sizes: The upper limit of 500 members set by Article 170 is designed to prevent State Assemblies from becoming too large, unruly, or inefficient, ensuring that legislative debates remain functional and administrative costs do not spiral out of control.
- The Case of Uttar Pradesh: India’s most populous state, Uttar Pradesh, currently has the largest State Legislative Assembly, consisting of 403 elected members, placing it well within the 500-member constitutional maximum limit.
- Freezing of Total Seats: To encourage states to actively pursue population control measures, the 84th Constitutional Amendment Act of 2001 froze the total number of seats in the State Assemblies based on the 1971 census figures until the first census taken after the year 2026.
📌 State Legislature • Legislative Council
Q.23) The minimum strength of a State Legislative Council is fixed by the Constitution at:
Ans > 40
- Proportional Limitation: Article 171 dictates that the total number of members in the State Legislative Council (Vidhan Parishad) shall not exceed one-third of the total number of members in the State Legislative Assembly, effectively linking the sizes of the two houses.
- Absolute Minimum: While the upper limit is proportionally flexible, the Constitution establishes a hard floor, stating that the strength of the Legislative Council shall in no case be less than 40 members, ensuring the house has enough members to function effectively.
- Indirect Composition: Unlike the Assembly, the Council is indirectly elected. Members are chosen by an electoral college consisting of local bodies, university graduates, and teachers, with a specific portion (one-sixth) directly nominated by the State Governor for special expertise.
📌 Judiciary • High Courts
Q.24) Which Article empowers the High Courts to issue writs for the enforcement of Fundamental Rights and “for any other purpose”?
Ans > Article 226
- Wider Scope of Jurisdiction: Article 226 empowers High Courts to issue five key writs (Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Quo Warranto, Certiorari). Crucially, High Courts can issue these not just for Fundamental Rights, but also “for any other purpose” (such as enforcing ordinary legal rights).
- Contrast with Supreme Court: The Supreme Court’s writ jurisdiction under Article 32 is strictly limited solely to the enforcement of Fundamental Rights. Therefore, the High Court’s writ jurisdiction is constitutionally much wider in scope than that of the Supreme Court.
- Discretionary Nature of Power: The Supreme Court is duty-bound to issue writs under Article 32 as it is a Fundamental Right itself. However, the High Court’s power under Article 226 is discretionary; it can refuse to exercise its writ jurisdiction if an alternate, effective legal remedy exists.
📌 Local Government • Panchayati Raj
Q.25) The Balwant Rai Mehta Committee (1957) is associated with recommending the establishment of:
Ans > A three-tier Panchayati Raj system
- Origins of Democratic Decentralisation: Appointed in 1957 to examine the working of the Community Development Programme (1952), the Balwant Rai Mehta Committee coined the term “democratic decentralisation,” which eventually became universally known in India as the Panchayati Raj system.
- The Three-Tier Structure: The committee specifically recommended a strictly linked three-tier system of rural local government: the Gram Panchayat at the village level, the Panchayat Samiti at the intermediate/block level, and the Zila Parishad at the district level.
- Pioneering Implementation: The National Development Council accepted these landmark recommendations in 1958. Rajasthan became the very first state to implement the system, with Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru inaugurating it in Nagaur district on October 2, 1959.
📌 Amendments • Local Government
Q.26) Which Constitutional Amendment Act added Part IX (The Panchayats) to the Constitution?
Ans > 73rd Amendment Act (1992)
- Constitutional Legitimacy: The 73rd Amendment Act, enacted during the P.V. Narasimha Rao government, gave formal constitutional status to Panchayati Raj institutions, finally translating the Directive Principle found in Article 40 from a mere guideline into an enforceable constitutional mandate.
- New Additions to the Constitution: The Act inserted a brand new Part IX into the Constitution containing Articles 243 to 243O. It also added a new Eleventh Schedule, which listed 29 functional items that state governments were supposed to devolve to the Panchayats.
- Mandatory Provisions Established: The amendment forced states to follow uniform rules, making a three-tier system mandatory (except for small states), establishing a fixed 5-year term, mandating State Election Commissions, and crucially ensuring reservations for SCs, STs, and women (minimum one-third seats).
📌 Local Government • Elections
Q.27) What is the minimum age required to contest elections to Panchayats and Municipalities?
Ans > 21 years
- Lower Barrier to Entry: The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment Acts explicitly state that no person shall be disqualified from contesting local body elections on the ground that they are less than 25 years of age, provided they have attained the age of 21 years.
- Encouraging Youth Leadership: This 21-year threshold is significantly lower than the 25-year requirement to become a Member of the Legislative Assembly (MLA) or Member of Parliament (Lok Sabha), purposefully designed to encourage young citizens to participate directly in grassroots governance and politics.
- State Legislative Control: While the Constitution protects the 21-year minimum age from being raised by states, all other disqualifications for being chosen as a member of a Panchayat or Municipality are determined by laws created by the respective State Legislatures.
📌 Constitutional Bodies • Election Commission
Q.28) The Election Commission of India is a permanent and independent body established under which Article?
Ans > Article 324
- All-India Institution: Article 324 establishes the Election Commission as an independent constitutional authority. It is an all-India body in the sense that it is common to both the Central government and the State governments, ensuring uniformity in the massive electoral process.
- Scope of Authority: The Election Commission is solely vested with the power of superintendence, direction, and control of elections to Parliament, State Legislatures, the office of President, and the office of Vice-President of India.
- Strict Exclusions: Despite being a pan-India body, the Election Commission of India is not concerned with elections to local bodies like Panchayats and Municipalities. Separate State Election Commissions are constitutionally mandated to handle those grassroots democratic exercises.
📌 Constitutional Bodies • Finance Commission
Q.29) Which Article provides for a Finance Commission to be constituted by the President every five years?
Ans > Article 280
- Balancing Fiscal Federalism: Article 280 requires the President to constitute a Finance Commission, acting as a quasi-judicial body, at the expiration of every fifth year or at such earlier times as they consider necessary, to maintain balance in center-state financial relations.
- Core Responsibilities: The primary duty of the Commission is to make recommendations regarding the distribution of net proceeds of taxes between the Centre and the states (vertical devolution), and the allocation between the states of their respective shares of such proceeds (horizontal devolution).
- Composition and Qualifications: The Finance Commission consists of a Chairman and four other members appointed by the President. The Parliament is constitutionally authorized to determine by law the requisite qualifications for these members and the exact manner in which they shall be selected.
📌 Constitutional Bodies • CAG
Q.30) The independent office of the Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG) is established under which Article?
Ans > Article 148
- Guardian of the Public Purse: Article 148 provides for an independent office of the CAG, making it the supreme audit institution of India. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar considered the CAG to be the most important officer under the Indian Constitution, as they ensure accountability of the executive to the Parliament in financial matters.
- Dual Audit Responsibility: Unlike many other constitutional bodies, the CAG audits the accounts of both the Central Government and all the State Governments, ensuring a uniform accounting and auditing standard across the entire Indian federal structure.
- Protections for Independence: To ensure complete independence from political pressure, the CAG is appointed by the President and can only be removed from office in the exact same manner and on the exact same grounds as a Judge of the Supreme Court.
📌 Quick Summary — Polity Set 90
- Presidential Pardon: Only the President can pardon death sentences (Article 72).
- Ordinance Power: Article 123 empowers the President to issue ordinances.
- Presidential Qualifications: Minimum age to be President is 35 years.
- Impeachment: Article 61 details President’s impeachment for violating the Constitution.
- Joint Sitting: Article 108 allows joint sessions for deadlocked bills.
- Rajya Sabha Chairman: The Vice-President is the ex-officio Chairman.
- Parliament Sessions: Maximum gap between sessions is 6 months.
- Quorum: Lok Sabha quorum is 55 members (1/10th of total).
- Money Bills: Defined under Article 110 of the Constitution.
- Speaker’s Authority: Lok Sabha Speaker’s decision on a Money Bill is final.
- Budget: Referred to as ‘Annual Financial Statement’ under Article 112.
- PAC: Public Accounts Committee has 22 members (15 LS, 7 RS).
- Estimates Committee: Largest committee (30 members), exclusively from Lok Sabha.
- Supreme Court: Established under Articles 124 to 147 (Part V).
- SC Judges: Hold office until 65 years of age.
- Original Jurisdiction: SC handles Centre-State disputes under Article 131.
- Advisory Jurisdiction: President can consult SC under Article 143.
- Governor’s Age: Minimum age requirement is 35 years.
- Governor’s Ordinance: Handled under Article 213.
- Chief Minister: Appointed by the Governor (Article 164).
- Assembly Min Strength: Generally fixed at 60 members.
- Assembly Max Strength: Fixed at 500 members.
- Council Min Strength: Legislative Council minimum is 40 members.
- High Court Writs: Article 226 grants wider writ powers than SC.
- Panchayati Raj: Balwant Rai Mehta Committee proposed the 3-tier system.
- 73rd Amendment: Added Part IX (Panchayats) to the Constitution (1992).
- Local Elections: Minimum age to contest is 21 years.
- Election Commission: Independent body established by Article 324.
- Finance Commission: Formed every 5 years under Article 280.
- CAG: Established under Article 148 as the public purse guardian.
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