Modern History Set 19
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π Literature β’ Travel
Q.1) The travel account Narrative of a Visit to the Court of Sinde was written by which British traveler?
Ans > James Burnes
- Medical Diplomacy & Intelligence: James Burnes was a Scottish surgeon employed by the British East India Company. In 1827, he was officially invited to the highly secretive court of the Amirs of Sindh in Hyderabad to treat one of the rulers for a severe illness.
- Strategic Insights: At the time, Sindh was completely closed off to European travelers and diplomats. Burnes utilized his medical visit to meticulously document the region’s geography, military strength, and the navigation potential of the Indus River, which the British desperately wanted to control for trade and strategic defense against perceived Russian threats.
- Publication Impact: The book “Narrative of a Visit to the Court of Sinde” was published in 1831. It provided the British authorities with their very first reliable intelligence regarding the internal politics of the Talpur Amirs, directly paving the way for the eventual, highly controversial British annexation of Sindh by Charles Napier in 1843.
π Literature β’ Travel
Q.2) Which British traveler authored the account titled Travels Into Bokhara?
Ans > Alexander Burnes
- The Great Game Explorer: Alexander Burnes, the younger brother of James Burnes, was a legendary Scottish explorer, military officer, and diplomat deeply involved in the geopolitical “Great Game” between the British and Russian Empires over supremacy in Central Asia.
- Undercover Journey: In 1831-32, Burnes undertook a highly dangerous, pioneering journey disguised as an Afghan native. He traveled from British India through the rugged passes of Punjab and Afghanistan, crossing the Hindu Kush mountains all the way to the ancient Silk Road city of Bokhara in modern-day Uzbekistan, gathering immense political and geographical intelligence.
- Literary Success & Tragic End: Upon his return, he published his three-volume masterpiece “Travels Into Bokhara” in 1834. The book became an instant, massive bestseller in Victorian England, earning him the famous nickname “Bokhara Burnes.” Tragically, his intimate knowledge of the region could not save him; he was brutally assassinated by an Afghan mob in Kabul in 1841 at the outbreak of the disastrous First Anglo-Afghan War.
π Press β’ Nationalism
Q.3) In colonial India, the newspaper Voice of India was published under the editorship of which prominent nationalist?
Ans > Dadabhai Naoroji
- The Grand Old Man of India: Dadabhai Naoroji was a towering figure in the early Indian nationalist movement. He founded the newspaper “Voice of India” in Bombay in 1883 specifically to serve as a powerful platform to articulate Indian grievances directly to both the Indian public and liberal British politicians.
- Economic Nationalism: The newspaper was heavily utilized to popularize his groundbreaking “Drain of Wealth” theory. Naoroji meticulously arguedβlater compiled in his seminal book “Poverty and Un-British Rule in India”βthat Britain was systematically impoverishing India by draining millions of pounds annually through unfair taxation, massive administrative salaries sent abroad, and zero returns on Indian revenues.
- Political Legacy: Beyond his journalism, Naoroji was highly instrumental in the formation of the Indian National Congress (INC), serving as its President three times (1886, 1893, 1906). Furthermore, in 1892, he made history by becoming the very first Asian to be elected as a Member of Parliament (MP) in the British House of Commons, representing Finsbury Central.
π Press β’ Nationalism
Q.4) The late 19th-century Indian newspaper Sudharak was published under the editorship of whom?
Ans > Gopal Ganesh Agarkar
- Social Reform vs. Political Freedom: Gopal Ganesh Agarkar was a prominent rationalist thinker and social reformer from Maharashtra. He originally co-founded the famous nationalist newspapers *Kesari* and *Mahratta* with Bal Gangadhar Tilak. However, a deep ideological rift developed between them: Tilak believed that political independence must come first, while Agarkar vehemently argued that social reform (eradicating untouchability, child marriage) was an absolute prerequisite for a strong nation.
- Founding of Sudharak: Due to this severe ideological clash, Agarkar left *Kesari* and founded his own independent Marathi-English bilingual newspaper, “Sudharak” (The Reformer), in 1888 in Pune. He used this powerful new platform to fiercely attack orthodox Hindu traditions, religious hypocrisy, and the brutal caste system.
- Championing Women’s Rights: Through *Sudharak*, Agarkar became one of the loudest voices advocating for widow remarriage, women’s education, and the highly controversial Age of Consent Bill (1891), which sought to raise the legal age of consummation of marriage for girls from 10 to 12 yearsβa move heavily opposed by conservative nationalists like Tilak.
π Press β’ Nationalism
Q.5) Which nationalist leader was responsible for the publication of the newspaper Indian Mirror?
Ans > N.N. Sen
- Origins in the Brahmo Samaj: The “Indian Mirror” was originally founded in 1861 in Calcutta by the prominent social reformer Devendranath Tagore, with vital early contributions from Keshab Chandra Sen. It was deeply rooted in the progressive, monotheistic ideology of the Brahmo Samaj movement, aiming to reform Bengali society.
- Transformation into a Daily: Narendra Nath Sen (N.N. Sen) eventually took over full proprietorship and chief editorial control of the publication. Under his dynamic leadership, the “Indian Mirror” achieved a massive historical milestone by becoming the very first Indian-owned English-language daily newspaper in the country.
- Political Stance & Influence: The newspaper became a highly influential organ for shaping the political consciousness of the educated Bengali intelligentsia during the late 19th century. It maintained a generally moderate political stance, firmly advocating for constitutional reforms, greater Indian representation in civil services, and the establishment of local self-government, aligning closely with the early phase of the Indian National Congress.
π Journals β’ Revolutionary
Q.6) To infuse a feeling of nationalism among Indians living abroad, Shyamji Krishnavarma published which journal in London?
Ans > Indian Sociologist
- Center of Overseas Nationalism: Shyamji Krishnavarma, an Oxford-educated lawyer and Sanskrit scholar, founded the Indian Home Rule Society and established “India House” in Highgate, London, in 1905. This hostel quickly transformed into a radical hub for Indian students studying in Britain, fostering deep anti-colonial sentiments right in the heart of the British Empire.
- Ideological Organ: To spread his political ideology, Krishnavarma launched the English monthly journal, “The Indian Sociologist,” in 1905. The journal aggressively promoted the concept of complete Indian self-rule (Swaraj) and heavily criticized the moderate, petition-based politics of the early Indian National Congress, demanding absolute political severance from Britain.
- Radicalization and Exile: The journal profoundly influenced a generation of fiery young revolutionaries, including V.D. Savarkar and Madan Lal Dhingra. As the writings in the *Indian Sociologist* became increasingly radical and began justifying political violence, the British authorities cracked down. Krishnavarma was forced to flee London, moving his publishing operations first to Paris and later to Geneva to avoid arrest.
π Journals β’ Revolutionary
Q.7) Which Indian revolutionary living abroad published the journal Bande Matram from Paris?
Ans > Madam Cama
- The Mother of Indian Revolution: Madam Bhikaji Cama was a fiercely dedicated Parsi revolutionary who spent most of her adult life in exile in Europe. She worked tirelessly to rally international socialist support against British imperialism and was famously the first person to unfurl a version of the Indian national flag on foreign soil at the International Socialist Congress in Stuttgart, Germany, in 1907.
- Launch of Bande Matram: In 1909, operating from Paris (and later Geneva), she launched the revolutionary journal “Bande Matram” (named in honor of the earlier paper published by Bipin Chandra Pal and Sri Aurobindo that the British had banned in India). She was closely assisted by other prominent exiles like Virendranath Chattopadhyay.
- Smuggling and Impact: The journal was an uncompromising call to arms, openly advocating for violent, armed rebellion against British rule and urging Indian soldiers to mutiny. Because it was strictly banned in British India, *Bande Matram* was secretly printed in Europe and heavily smuggled into India hidden inside hollowed-out books and innocuous commercial shipments to inspire radical youth societies in Bengal and Maharashtra.
π Journals β’ Revolutionary
Q.8) The journal Talwar, aimed at Indians living abroad, was published in Berlin by whom?
Ans > Virendranath Chattopadhyay
- The Berlin Committee Leader: Virendranath Chattopadhyay, popularly known as “Chatto” (and brother to the famous poet Sarojini Naidu), was a central figure in the international Indian revolutionary network. During World War I, he was instrumental in forming the Berlin Committee, which attempted to trigger a massive pan-Indian mutiny by securing money and arms from the German government (the Hindu-German Conspiracy).
- Commemorating a Martyr: In late 1909, Chatto began publishing the journal “Talwar” (The Sword) from Berlin. The journal was originally named “Madan’s Talwar” to explicitly honor and commemorate the martyrdom of Madan Lal Dhingra, a young revolutionary who had recently assassinated the British official Sir William Curzon Wyllie in London.
- Ideological Shift: The publication aimed to radicalize the large diaspora of Indian students and professionals scattered across Europe, pushing them away from moderate politics toward armed insurrection. Following the failure of the German-backed plots and the end of WWI, Chatto’s political ideology heavily shifted towards Marxism, and he eventually relocated to the Soviet Union, where he tragically perished during Stalin’s Great Purge in 1937.
π Literature β’ Regional Novels
Q.9) The Tamil novel Mohana Rajani, published in 1931 and reflecting social experiences, was written by whom?
Ans > Girija Devi
- The Rise of the Vernacular Novel: The early 20th century witnessed a massive literary renaissance across South India. The novel format, newly adopted from Western literature, became the primary vehicle for progressive writers to heavily critique deeply entrenched, orthodox socio-cultural practices and caste dynamics that traditional poetry generally ignored.
- Social Reflection in Mohana Rajani: Written by the pioneering author Girija Devi and published in 1931, “Mohana Rajani” stands out as a critical piece of social commentary. The narrative intricately explores the rapidly changing social landscape of Tamil society, specifically focusing on the clash between conservative Hindu traditions and the creeping influence of modern, rational education.
- Focus on Women’s Conditions: Like many progressive regional novels of its era, Girija Devi’s work served as a mirror to society, highlighting the suppressed condition of women, the rigidity of patriarchal family structures, and the immense difficulties faced by individuals attempting to break free from rigid, caste-based societal expectations during the height of the Dravidian awakening.
π Literature β’ Regional Novels
Q.10) Which author wrote the Tamil novel Dasikalin Mosavalai in 1936?
Ans > Ramatirthammal
- Crusade Against the Devadasi System: Moovalur Ramamirthammal (often cited as Ramatirthammal) was a fierce, relentless social reformer from Tamil Nadu. Having been personally dedicated as a Devadasi (temple dancer) in her youth, she possessed firsthand knowledge of how the deeply exploitative system forced young women into normalized prostitution under the protective guise of Hindu religious tradition.
- Literary Activism: To expose these horrifying realities to the broader public, she authored the highly explosive Tamil novel “Dasikalin Mosavalai” (The Web of Deceit of the Devadasis) in 1936. The novel systematically dismantled the romanticized, religious aura surrounding the Devadasi tradition, bluntly depicting the sexual and economic exploitation faced by these women at the hands of powerful, upper-caste temple priests and wealthy landlords.
- Legislative Impact: Ramamirthammal heavily aligned herself with Periyar E.V. Ramasamy’s Self-Respect Movement. Her relentless ground-level activism and the massive public awareness generated by her writings were absolutely instrumental in supporting Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy’s legislative efforts, eventually culminating in the historic passage of the Madras Devadasi (Prevention of Dedication) Act in 1947, permanently abolishing the practice.
π Literature β’ Regional Novels
Q.11) The acclaimed Malayalam novel Tottiyude Makan (Son of a Scavenger, 1948) was written by which author?
Ans > Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai
- Pioneer of Progressive Literature: Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai is universally celebrated as a titan of Malayalam literature. He spearheaded the progressive literature movement in Kerala, deliberately dragging the focus of storytelling away from upper-caste elites and royalty to focus entirely on the brutal, everyday struggles of the absolute most marginalized and oppressed working classes.
- Grim Realism & Social Critique: Published in 1948, “Tottiyude Makan” (Son of a Scavenger) is a masterpiece of stark, unflinching realism. The novel paints a horrifyingly vivid picture of the lives of three generations of night-soil carriers (manual scavengers) laboring in the town of Alappuzha (Alleppey). It exposes the extreme, inescapable poverty, rampant disease, and suffocating social ostracization imposed by the caste system.
- The Dawn of Unionization: Beyond mere tragedy, the novel possesses massive historical significance because it documents the very beginnings of class consciousness and the emergence of trade unionism among the lowest castes in Kerala. The protagonist’s desperate, ultimately tragic struggle to secure a better, dignified future for his son remains one of the most powerful critiques of caste-based occupational traps in Indian literature.
π Art β’ Bengal School
Q.12) Who was the principal of the art school in Calcutta that played a vital role in the rise of the Bengal School of Art alongside Abanindranath Tagore?
Ans > E.B. Havell
- Rejection of Western Academic Art: Ernest Binfield (E.B.) Havell was a highly influential British arts administrator who served as the Principal of the Government School of Art in Calcutta from 1896 to 1905. Unlike his predecessors, Havell vehemently rejected the British colonial policy of forcing Indian students to purely copy European academic realism, oil painting, and Victorian aesthetics (a style championed earlier by Raja Ravi Varma).
- Revival of Indian Aesthetics: Havell deeply believed in the spiritual superiority and idealistic nature of traditional Indian art forms. He actively encouraged his students to abandon Western perspectives and instead study the intricate techniques of Mughal and Rajput miniatures, the majestic frescoes of the Ajanta caves, and traditional wash techniques. He completely overhauled the school’s gallery, replacing European statues with Indian masterpieces.
- Birth of a Nationalist Movement: Havell formed a massive, historic partnership with his star pupil, Abanindranath Tagore. Together, they laid the absolute foundation for the Bengal School of Art. This new, indigenous art style rapidly became the visual, aesthetic wing of the broader Swadeshi movement, aiming to culturally liberate India from British intellectual dominance and redefine modern Indian identity through art.
π Battles β’ Panipat
Q.13) The First Battle of Panipat in 1526, which laid the foundation of the Mughal Empire, was fought between Babur and whom?
Ans > Ibrahim Lodi
- The End of the Delhi Sultanate: The First Battle of Panipat, fought on April 21, 1526, was a massive turning point in South Asian history. It effectively annihilated the Lodi dynasty, bringing an absolute end to the era of the Delhi Sultanate and permanently establishing the foundation of the mighty Mughal Empire in India under Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur.
- Babur’s Strategic Brilliance: Despite being severely outnumbered (Babur had roughly 12,000 to 15,000 men compared to Ibrahim Lodi’s massive force of nearly 100,000 men and 1,000 war elephants), Babur possessed superior military technology and tactics. He effectively introduced field artillery (matchlocks and cannons) to the Indian subcontinent, managed by highly skilled Ottoman gunners like Ustad Ali and Mustafa.
- Tactical Execution: Babur utilized the highly effective *Tulughma* tactic, dividing his cavalry to rapidly outflank the enemy from the rear. He also deployed the *Araba* defensive formationβlashing together hundreds of baggage carts to create a protective barrier for his musketeers. The terrifying noise of the cannons caused Lodi’s war elephants to stampede their own lines, resulting in a total rout and the death of Ibrahim Lodi on the battlefield.
π Battles β’ Panipat
Q.14) The Second Battle of Panipat in 1556 decided in favor of the continuation of Mughal rule and was fought between Akbar and whom?
Ans > Hemu
- The Rise of Vikramaditya: Following the sudden, accidental death of the Mughal Emperor Humayun, the Mughal hold on India was incredibly fragile. Hemu (Hemchandra Vikramaditya), a brilliant Hindu general who served the Afghan Sur dynasty, seized the opportunity. He captured Delhi and Agra, winning 22 consecutive battles, and formally crowned himself Emperor, threatening to wipe out the Mughals entirely.
- The Clash at Panipat: On November 5, 1556, the decisive Second Battle of Panipat took place. The Mughal forces were officially led by the young, 13-year-old Akbar, though the brilliant and ruthless military strategist Bairam Khan actually commanded the army. Hemu possessed a massive numerical advantage, specifically relying on a terrifying corps of 1,500 heavily armored war elephants.
- The Turning Point: The battle was heavily swinging in Hemu’s favor as his elephants smashed through the Mughal flanks. However, in a stroke of sheer luck for the Mughals, a stray arrow struck Hemu directly in his eye, piercing his brain while he directed the battle from his lead elephant, *Hawai*. Seeing their commander collapse, his massive army instantly panicked and fled. Hemu was captured unconscious and subsequently beheaded, firmly securing the Mughal Empire for the next three centuries.
π Historiography β’ Mughals
Q.15) Which historian authored the book Army of the Indian Mughals, arguing that military inefficiency was the primary cause of the empire’s collapse?
Ans > William Irvine
- Analysis of Military Decay: William Irvine, an official in the Indian Civil Service and a dedicated historian, published his highly seminal work “The Army of the Indian Moghuls: Its Organization and Administration” in 1903. The book completely shifted the historiographical focus from personalities and religious policies directly onto the structural, mechanical failures of the empire.
- The Bloated Camp: Irvine meticulously detailed how the Mughal military machineryβonce the most lethal force in Asia under Babur and Akbarβgradually devolved into a highly inefficient, slow-moving, bloated mobile city. The later armies were bogged down by thousands of non-combatant camp followers, luxury tents, and an extreme over-reliance on heavy, armored cavalry that lacked mobility.
- Failure to Modernize: The core argument of Irvine’s thesis is that the Mughals completely failed to undergo a military revolution. They neglected to modernize their field artillery (which became too heavy to move quickly), entirely ignored the development of a professional deep-water navy, and failed to transition to highly disciplined, drilled infantry armed with modern flintlock muskets. This stagnation made them completely vulnerable to the lightning-fast light cavalry of the Marathas and the disciplined infantry of European colonial forces.
π Historiography β’ Mughals
Q.16) The historical work The Fall of the Mughal Empire was written by which author?
Ans > J.N. Sarkar
- The Definitive Opus: Sir Jadunath Sarkar (J.N. Sarkar) is universally regarded as the absolute foremost authority on late medieval Indian history, specifically the reign of Aurangzeb and the subsequent Maratha expansion. His monumental, deeply researched 4-volume opus, “Fall of the Mughal Empire” (published between 1932 and 1950), remains the gold standard for studying the era.
- Multi-Faceted Collapse: Sarkar argued that the empire did not collapse due to a single cause, but rather suffered from a systemic, multi-organ failure. He heavily detailed the severe agrarian crisis caused by over-taxation, the complete breakdown of the complex *Mansabdari* and *Jagirdari* administrative systems, and the catastrophic financial ruin brought upon the treasury by Aurangzeb’s endless, 27-year war of attrition in the Deccan.
- Internal Decay and Foreign Invasions: The books meticulously document how the religious orthodoxy of the later emperors alienated critical allies like the Rajputs and ignited massive regional rebellions by the Sikhs, Jats, and Marathas. Sarkar vividly illustrates how the endless, bloody wars of succession among incompetent later princes left the empire internally hollowed out, making it totally defenseless against devastating foreign sacks by Nadir Shah of Persia and Ahmad Shah Abdali.
π Regional β’ Kerala
Q.17) Martanda Varma established the independent state of Kerala in the 18th century with its capital at which location?
Ans > Travancore
- Ruthless Consolidation: Maharaja Anizham Thirunal Martanda Varma was a highly visionary, yet ruthless, ruler who transformed the small principality of Venad into the powerful, expansive kingdom of Travancore. He achieved this by permanently breaking the power of the rebellious, feudal Nair nobles (the Ettuveetil Pillamar) and annexing several neighboring chiefdoms through a massive standing army.
- Defeating a European Power: Martanda Varma holds a massively unique distinction in Asian history. In 1741, at the historic Battle of Colachel, his modernized Travancore forces completely decimated the highly equipped naval forces of the Dutch East India Company. This was the absolute first time in history that an Asian power decisively defeated a major European colonial empire, permanently ending Dutch political ambitions in India.
- Statecraft and Modernization: Operating from his capital at Padmanabhapuram (and later shifting to Trivandrum), he brilliantly dedicated his entire kingdom to the tutelary deity Lord Padmanabha, ruling purely as *Padmanabha Dasa* (Servant of Padmanabha). He utilized European defectors, specifically the Dutch commander Eustachius De Lannoy, to deeply modernize his army with European drills and artillery, creating a highly centralized, bureaucratic state capable of resisting the Mysore invasions.
π Education β’ 18th Century
Q.18) In 18th-century India, elementary schools serving the Hindu population were known by what name?
Ans > Pathshalas
- Decentralized Indigenous System: Pre-colonial education in India was not governed by any centralized state board. Instead, it was highly localized, community-funded, and deeply integrated into the village social fabric. For the Hindu population, elementary education was imparted in “Pathshalas,” which were typically small gatherings held under a large banyan tree, on the veranda of a local temple, or in the teacher’s (Guru’s) own home.
- Curriculum and Methods: The curriculum was strictly practical and heavily oral, completely lacking printed textbooks. Students were taught basic literacy, rudimentary Sanskrit grammar, religious myths, and most importantly, *Mahajani* accounts (agricultural and commercial arithmetic). The pedagogy relied heavily on rote memorization and chanting.
- Flexibility and Access: Unlike modern schools, Pathshalas had no fixed fee structures, no rigid timetables, and no annual examinations. The timing was highly flexible, completely shutting down during the harvest seasons to allow children of peasant families to work in the fields. While relatively widespread, access was largely restricted by the caste system, heavily favoring Brahmins and trading castes over the lower classes.
π Education β’ 18th Century
Q.19) In 18th-century India, elementary education among the Muslims was commonly imparted in which institutions?
Ans > Maktabs
- Foundational Islamic Learning: Parallel to the Hindu Pathshalas, elementary education for the Muslim population was primarily provided through institutions known as “Maktabs.” These were almost always physically attached to the local community mosques and were funded by wealthy patrons, nobles, or through charitable community endowments known as *Waqf*.
- Religious Literacy: The primary, overriding objective of the Maktab was to ensure young children (including girls in many cases) achieved basic religious literacy. The curriculum heavily focused on teaching students how to read the Arabic script specifically to recite the Quran, alongside teaching the fundamental tenets and daily prayers of Islam.
- Persian Administration: Beyond religious instruction, Maktabs also provided fundamental training in basic arithmetic and reading and writing in Persian. Since Persian was the official court language and the language of administration under the Mughal Empire and subsequent regional Nawabs, gaining basic literacy in a Maktab was the absolute necessary first step for any young Muslim seeking future employment in the state bureaucracy.
π Education β’ 18th Century
Q.20) In 18th-century India, institutions of higher learning focused on Persian and Arabic were known as what?
Ans > Madrasahs
- Centers of Advanced Scholarship: Once a student graduated from the elementary Maktab, those seeking advanced, highly specialized knowledge proceeded to “Madrasahs.” These were the primary institutions of higher learning, functionally equivalent to medieval universities, heavily patronized by the royal courts and wealthy Muslim nobility.
- Complex Curriculum: Madrasahs offered a deeply rigorous curriculum taught entirely in Arabic and Persian. The syllabus was divided into *Maqulat* (rational sciences like Aristotelian logic, philosophy, astronomy, mathematics, and medicine/Unani) and *Manqulat* (traditional religious sciences like Quranic exegesis/Tafsir, traditions of the Prophet/Hadith, and Islamic jurisprudence/Fiqh).
- Path to Power: Graduating from a prestigious Madrasah (such as those in historical centers of learning like Delhi, Lucknow, or Jaunpur) was highly lucrative. Because the entire legal and administrative framework of the Mughal state operated on Islamic law and Persian correspondence, Madrasah graduates were instantly recruited as *Qazis* (judges), court scribes, revenue officials, and high-ranking administrators across the subcontinent.
π Science β’ Astronomy
Q.21) Raja Sawai Jai Singh prepared a set of timetables to help people in the study of astronomy. What was this set of timetables called?
Ans > Jij Muhammad-shahi
- A Quest for Precision: Raja Sawai Jai Singh II, the visionary Rajput ruler of Amber (and founder of Jaipur), was a brilliant mathematician and astronomer. He observed that the existing Islamic astronomical tables (specifically the *Zij-i-Sultani* of Ulugh Beg) and the European tables available to him contained massive, unacceptable errors in predicting the exact positions of planetary bodies and eclipses.
- Monumental Observatories: To correct these severe inaccuracies, he refused to rely on small brass instruments. Instead, he designed and constructed five massive, geometrically complex stone observatories known as the *Jantar Mantars* (located in Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain, Mathura, and Varanasi). These massive structures allowed for naked-eye observations of celestial movements with unprecedented, pinpoint accuracy.
- Synthesis of Knowledge: After seven years of meticulous observation, consulting Hindu, Islamic, and European astronomical texts (including Euclid and Ptolemy), he compiled a highly accurate set of astronomical tables in Persian. He named this monumental work the “Zij-i Muhammad Shahi” (Jij Muhammad-shahi) in 1733, dedicating it to his political overlord, the Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah.
π Literature β’ Malayalam
Q.22) Which notable Malayalam poet was heavily patronized by the Travancore rulers during the 18th century?
Ans > Kalakkathu Kunchan Nambiar
- Inventor of Ottamthullal: Kalakkathu Kunchan Nambiar is one of the most celebrated figures in Malayalam literary history. He is universally credited with inventing *Ottamthullal*, a highly energetic, solo dance-drama performance art. Legend states he created this new, accessible form overnight as a direct, angry protest after being humiliated by an elite performer during a traditional *Chakyar Koothu* performance.
- Master of Satire: Nambiar’s genius lay in his biting, fearless use of satire. While he wrote performances based on ancient Hindu mythology (Mahabharata and Ramayana), he deliberately infused them with everyday, colloquial Malayalam language rather than high Sanskrit. He cleverly used the mythological characters as thinly veiled metaphors to heavily critique the arrogance of the upper castes, corrupt royal officials, and the hypocrisy of 18th-century Kerala society.
- Royal Patronage: Despite his sharp, anti-establishment wit, his immense talent was recognized by the most powerful monarch of the era. He flourished under the heavy, protective patronage of King Martanda Varma of Travancore (and later his successor Dharma Raja), eventually serving as the official court poet in the capital of Trivandrum, ensuring his works became deeply embedded in Kerala’s cultural heritage.
π Battles β’ Anglo-Sikh
Q.23) During the First Anglo-Sikh War, the Sikhs suffered a major defeat at Sobraon. On what date did this battle take place?
Ans > February 10, 1846
- The Decisive Final Clash: The Battle of Sobraon was the massive, incredibly bloody final engagement of the First Anglo-Sikh War. Fought on the banks of the Sutlej River, the fiercely independent Sikh Khalsa Army had heavily entrenched themselves in a formidable defensive position, heavily fortified with powerful artillery batteries.
- Treason at the Top: The tragedy of Sobraon is rooted in absolute treachery. The Sikh Commander-in-Chief, Tej Singh, and the Wazir, Lal Singh, had secretly negotiated with the British. During the height of the battle, Tej Singh deliberately fled the field, famously cutting the pontoon bridge behind him, trapping his own men. Despite having no leadership, the Sikh soldiers fought with terrifying, fanatical bravery, refusing to surrender.
- Massive Casualties and Consequences: On February 10, 1846, the trapped Khalsa army was utterly annihilated. Thousands of Sikh soldiers drowned in the freezing, swollen waters of the Sutlej or were slaughtered by British artillery fire. The devastating defeat directly led to the Treaty of Lahore, which reduced the mighty Sikh Empire to a subordinate, heavily indemnified state, stripped of the lucrative Jalandhar Doab.
π Battles β’ Anglo-Sikh
Q.24) Under the Treaty of Amritsar (March 16, 1846), Kashmir was sold to Gulab Singh for what exact price?
Ans > 75 lakh rupees
- War Indemnity Strategy: Following the Sikh defeat in the First Anglo-Sikh War (1846), the British East India Company imposed a ruinous war indemnity of 1.5 crore rupees on the Lahore Durbar via the Treaty of Lahore. Knowing the Sikh state treasury was completely bankrupt and could not pay, the British demanded the cession of all hill territories between the Beas and Indus rivers, specifically including the lush, highly strategic region of Kashmir.
- The Infamous Sale: Just days later, on March 16, 1846, the British executed the Treaty of Amritsar. They formally sold the entirety of Kashmir to Gulab Singh, a highly ambitious Dogra noble who had previously served the Sikh Empire but had remained suspiciously neutral during the war. The exact, historic price was settled at 75 lakh Nanakshahi rupees.
- Geopolitical Ramifications: This highly controversial transaction, heavily criticized even at the time as a cynical sale of human beings, created the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir. By placing a massive, overwhelmingly Muslim-majority population under the autocratic rule of a Hindu Dogra dynasty, the British inadvertently sowed the deep demographic and political seeds for the complex, ongoing Kashmir conflict that exploded a century later during the 1947 partition.
π Battles β’ Anglo-Sikh
Q.25) Which wazir of Punjab, who had succeeded the murdered Hira Singh Dogra, was put to death by the army in 1845?
Ans > Jawahar Singh
- Descent into Anarchy: Following the death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1839, the once-mighty Sikh Empire descended into a period of absolute, bloody chaos. A rapid succession of assassinations wiped out the royal heirs (Kharak Singh, Nau Nihal Singh) and powerful ministers like Hira Singh Dogra, leaving a massive power vacuum in the Lahore Durbar.
- Rise through Nepotism: In this chaotic environment, Jawahar Singh managed to secure the incredibly powerful position of Wazir (Prime Minister) in 1844. His only real qualification for the job was that he was the biological brother of Maharani Jindan Kaur (the powerful Queen Regent) and the maternal uncle to the child-Maharaja, Duleep Singh.
- A Fatal Mistake: Jawahar Singh’s rule was deeply unpopular and highly unstable. His fatal mistake was ordering the brutal assassination of Prince Pashaura Singh, a highly popular rival claimant to the throne. Furious at this treacherous murder, the powerful Sikh army councils (the Panchayats) summoned Jawahar Singh. In September 1845, despite the desperate pleading of his sister Rani Jindan, he was dragged off his elephant and brutally executed by the soldiers, pushing the state closer to war.
π Battles β’ Anglo-Sikh
Q.26) Who became the wazir of the Sikh kingdom in 1845 by winning over the army to his side as the lover of Rani Jindan?
Ans > Lal Singh
- Intrigue in the Durbar: Following the bloody execution of Jawahar Singh by the mutinous army, the Lahore Durbar was in a state of absolute panic. Raja Lal Singh, a highly ambitious and cunning courtier of Brahmin descent, managed to navigate this chaos to be formally appointed as the Wazir (Prime Minister) of the Sikh Empire in late 1845.
- Influence of the Queen Regent: Lal Singh’s rapid ascension to the highest office was not based on military prowess or administrative brilliance, but rather derived entirely from his immense personal influence over the Queen Regent, Maharani Jindan Kaur, whose paramour he was widely known to be. Together, they desperately sought to control the increasingly uncontrollable Khalsa army.
- Treasonous Intentions: Deeply fearing that the powerful, highly democratic army councils (Panchayats) would eventually turn on them and execute them as well, Lal Singh and Commander-in-Chief Tej Singh deliberately instigated the Khalsa army to cross the Sutlej River and attack the British. Their treasonous, secret strategy was to ensure the Sikh army was destroyed by British artillery, allowing the traitorous ministers to retain their massive wealth and political power as compliant British puppets.
π Treaties β’ British Expansion
Q.27) Under the Tripartite Treaty of 1838, who was mandated to conduct their foreign affairs with the advice of the Sikhs and the British?
Ans > Shah Shuja
- The Great Game Paranoia: During the 1830s, the British East India Company became heavily gripped by “Russophobia”βan intense, almost hysterical fear that the expanding Russian Empire would march through Central Asia, ally with Afghanistan, and subsequently invade British India. To preempt this phantom threat, Viceroy Lord Auckland decided Afghanistan must have a pro-British ruler.
- The Puppet King: The reigning Afghan Amir, Dost Mohammad, was fiercely independent. Consequently, the British orchestrated the Tripartite Treaty of 1838, an alliance between the British, Maharaja Ranjit Singh of Punjab, and Shah Shuja (the deeply unpopular, exiled former ruler of Afghanistan who had been living on a British pension in Ludhiana for decades).
- Loss of Sovereignty: The treaty essentially stripped Shah Shuja of all real sovereignty. It mandated that upon being restored to the throne in Kabul via British bayonets, he would completely surrender control of his foreign policy to the British and the Sikhs, and relinquish all Afghan claims to the rich territory of Peshawar. This disastrous treaty directly triggered the First Anglo-Afghan War, resulting in the total annihilation of the retreating British Army of the Indus in 1842.
π Battles β’ Anglo-Burmese
Q.28) During the Second Anglo-Burmese War in 1852, the British occupied the only remaining coastal province of Burma. What was its name?
Ans > Pegu
- Dalhousie’s Aggressive Expansion: The Second Anglo-Burmese War (1852) was entirely orchestrated by the highly aggressive, expansionist British Governor-General, Lord Dalhousie. Using minor, highly exaggerated complaints from British timber merchants in Rangoon regarding mistreatment by local Burmese officials as a convenient pretext, Dalhousie immediately dispatched a massive naval expedition to extract impossible reparations.
- Swift Annexation: Unlike the grueling First war, the British forces were technologically superior and well-supplied. Within months, the British military completely overran the Irrawaddy delta, capturing major strategic targets including Martaban, Rangoon, and the highly revered Shwedagon Pagoda, encountering very little coordinated resistance from the weakened Burmese state.
- A Landlocked Empire: The war concluded without an official treaty. Dalhousie simply issued a unilateral proclamation permanently annexing the incredibly fertile and resource-rich Lower Burma province of Pegu (Bago) into the British Empire. This move was strategically devastating for the Konbaung Dynasty; by taking Pegu, the British completely severed the Burmese Empire from the sea, leaving it entirely landlocked, economically isolated, and helpless before the final annexation in 1885.
π Expeditions β’ Tibet
Q.29) In August 1904, a British military contingent pushed its way into Lhasa, causing the Dalai Lama to flee. Who led this contingent?
Ans > Colonel Younghusband
- Curzon’s Phantom Threat: At the dawn of the 20th century, Viceroy Lord Curzon became heavily obsessed with the completely unfounded fear that the 13th Dalai Lama was secretly negotiating a defense treaty with the Russian Tsar to allow Russian troops into Tibet. To forcibly assert British dominance over the Himalayas, Curzon ordered a heavily armed “diplomatic mission” into the isolated, forbidden kingdom.
- The Bloody Advance: The expedition was ruthlessly led by Colonel Francis Younghusband, a seasoned Great Game explorer and soldier. The mission quickly devolved from diplomacy to sheer butchery. At the village of Guru, Younghusband’s troops used modern Maxim machine guns to mercilessly mow down over 600 poorly armed Tibetan monks who had attempted to block the road with matchlocks, swords, and amulets they believed made them bulletproof.
- Occupation of Lhasa: After blasting their way past the heavily fortified Gyantse Dzong, the British column successfully marched into the forbidden, sacred capital of Lhasa in August 1904. The 13th Dalai Lama, refusing to negotiate at gunpoint, fled across the treacherous mountains into exile in Mongolia, forcing the remaining regents to capitulate entirely to British demands.
π Expeditions β’ Tibet
Q.30) The Treaty of Lhasa (1904) permitted the opening of trade marts at Yatung, Gartok, and which other location in Tibet?
Ans > Gyantse
- Dictating Harsh Terms: Following Colonel Younghusband’s brutal, armed occupation of Lhasa in 1904, the British military completely dictated the terms of the Anglo-Tibetan Treaty to the helpless, remaining Tibetan regents. The treaty was explicitly designed to permanently shatter Tibet’s historical isolation and deeply subjugate its economy to British Indian interests.
- Economic Penetration: The core stipulation of the treaty forced the Tibetan government to immediately open three specific, strategic towns as exclusive trade marts for British and Indian merchants, with no tariffs allowed on British goods. These locations were Yatung, Gartok, and specifically Gyantse, where a permanent, armed British trade agent was heavily stationed to ensure compliance.
- Excluding Foreign Powers: Beyond trade, the British imposed a massive, crushing war indemnity of 5 million rupees (later reduced). More importantly, the treaty included a strict “non-alienation clause.” This clause explicitly forbade Tibet from granting any territorial concessions, railway rights, or mining permits to any other foreign powerβa condition squarely aimed at keeping the Russian Empire permanently locked out of the region, solidifying Tibet as an exclusive British buffer state.
π Quick Summary β Modern History Set 19
- Travel Accounts: James Burnes wrote “Narrative of a Visit to the Court of Sinde” (1831).
- Travel Accounts: Alexander Burnes authored “Travels Into Bokhara” (1834).
- Nationalist Press: Dadabhai Naoroji edited the “Voice of India” (1883).
- Social Reform Press: G.G. Agarkar published “Sudharak” in 1888.
- Journalism: N.N. Sen was the prominent editor of the “Indian Mirror”.
- Overseas Journals: Shyamji Krishnavarma published “Indian Sociologist” in London.
- Overseas Journals: Madam Cama published “Bande Matram” from Paris in 1909.
- Overseas Journals: Virendranath Chattopadhyay published “Talwar” in Berlin.
- Tamil Novels: Girija Devi wrote “Mohana Rajani” (1931).
- Tamil Novels: Ramatirthammal wrote “Dasikalin Mosavalai” (1936) against the Devadasi system.
- Malayalam Novels: Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai authored “Tottiyude Makan” (1948).
- Bengal Art: E.B. Havell partnered with Abanindranath Tagore at the Calcutta Art School.
- Mughal Empire: Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the 1st Battle of Panipat (1526).
- Mughal Empire: Akbar defeated Hemu at the 2nd Battle of Panipat (1556).
- Historiography: William Irvine wrote “Army of the Indian Mughals” (1903).
- Historiography: J.N. Sarkar authored the definitive “Fall of the Mughal Empire”.
- Regional Powers: Martanda Varma established the independent state of Travancore (Kerala).
- 18th Century Education: Hindu elementary schools were known as Pathshalas.
- 18th Century Education: Muslim elementary schools were known as Maktabs.
- 18th Century Education: Persian/Arabic higher learning institutions were Madrasahs.
- Science & Astronomy: Raja Sawai Jai Singh prepared the “Jij Muhammad-shahi” timetables.
- Regional Literature: Kunchan Nambiar was patronized by the Travancore rulers.
- Anglo-Sikh Wars: Sikhs suffered a major defeat at Sobraon on Feb 10, 1846.
- Treaty of Amritsar: Kashmir was sold to Gulab Singh for 75 lakh rupees.
- Sikh Empire: Wazir Jawahar Singh was executed by the army in 1845.
- Sikh Empire: Lal Singh became the wazir in 1845 due to Rani Jindan’s influence.
- Tripartite Treaty (1838): Shah Shuja aligned his foreign policy with the British and Sikhs.
- Anglo-Burmese War: The British annexed Pegu in 1852, leaving Burma landlocked.
- Tibet Expedition: Colonel Younghusband led the 1904 British military push into Lhasa.
- Treaty of Lhasa: Opened trade marts at Yatung, Gartok, and Gyantse.
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