Medieval History Set 61
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π Delhi Sultanate β’ Administration
Q.1) In the administrative terminology of the Delhi Sultanate under the Iqta system, what did the highly specific term Fawazil (or Fawadil) denote?
Ans > The excess, surplus revenue that an Iqtadar was required to remit to the central treasury after paying his troops and retaining his own salary.
- The Iqta System’s Foundation: The Iqta system was the fundamental financial and military bedrock of the Delhi Sultanate, originally formalized in India by Sultan Iltutmish. Under this system, the empire was divided into tracts of land called Iqtas, which were assigned to nobles.
- Role of the Iqtadar: The Iqtadar (or Muqti) acted as the provincial governor. His primary duties were to maintain law and order, and collect land revenue from his assigned territory on behalf of the Sultan.
- Calculating Fawazil: From this collected revenue, the Iqtadar deducted his own personal salary and the heavy cost of maintaining his assigned quota of troops and horses for the royal army. After these crucial deductions, he was legally obligated to remit the remaining surplus revenue, known specifically as Fawazil (or Fawadil), directly to the central imperial treasury.
- State Control: During the reigns of strong centralizing monarchs like Balban and Alauddin Khalji, the Ministry of Revenue (Diwan-i-Wizarat) strictly audited these accounts to ensure nobles did not hide the Fawazil, thus preventing them from accumulating excessive wealth and rebelling against the Sultan.
π Deccan Sultanates β’ Revenue System
Q.2) The brilliant military and administrative genius Malik Ambar essentially kept the Nizam Shahi dynasty alive. His agrarian revenue system was based on the model of which earlier administrator?
Ans > Raja Todar Mal
- The Rise of Malik Ambar: Malik Ambar was a remarkable Siddi (Abyssinian) former slave who rose through the ranks to become the Peshwa (Prime Minister) of the Ahmadnagar Sultanate. His military genius essentially halted the southern expansion of the mighty Mughal Empire for decades.
- Inspiration from the Mughals: Recognizing the need for a stable economy to fund his constant wars, Malik Ambar completely overhauled the agrarian revenue system of Ahmadnagar by directly adapting the highly successful Zabti system created by Emperor Akbarβs legendary finance minister, Raja Todar Mal.
- Systematic Land Assessment: He abolished arbitrary taxation and instituted a rigorous system of accurate land measurement. He classified agricultural land based on its actual fertility and average yields over a period of years, fixing the state’s share at one-third (and later two-fifths) of the gross produce.
- Long-Term Legacy: Most importantly, Malik Ambar bypassed corrupt middlemen and established direct contact with the peasant cultivators (a proto-Ryotwari system). This incredibly efficient, peasant-friendly revenue model profoundly influenced Chhatrapati Shivaji, who later adopted it as the financial backbone of the Maratha administration.
π Rajput States β’ Architecture
Q.3) The iconic Vijay Stambha (Tower of Victory) at Chittorgarh was commissioned by Rana Kumbha to commemorate his military victory over which regional Sultanate?
Ans > The Malwa Sultanate
- Context of Construction: The Vijay Stambha was commissioned by the legendary Rajput ruler Rana Kumbha of Mewar in 1448. It is prominently located within the massive walls of the Chittorgarh Fort in Rajasthan, serving as a towering monument to Rajput resilience.
- The Monumental Victory: The tower was specifically built to commemorate Rana Kumbha’s decisive and spectacular military triumph in 1440 over the powerful, combined armies of Sultan Mahmud Khalji of the Malwa Sultanate and the neighboring Gujarat Sultanate.
- Architectural Brilliance: The structure is a breathtaking 9-story, 37-meter high tower constructed from red sandstone and white marble. It is a masterpiece of vertical architecture, meticulously carved from base to apex with thousands of intricate images of Hindu gods, goddesses, and mythological scenes, earning it the title of a “textbook of Hindu iconography.”
- Symbol of Supremacy: Dedicated to Lord Vishnu, the Vijay Stambha stands not just as a military trophy, but as a profound symbol of Rajput valor and Rana Kumbha’s deep, unparalleled patronage of arts, literature, and architecture during an era defined by constant, brutal warfare.
π Modern History β’ Battles
Q.4) During the Battle of Plassey (1757), which two remarkably loyal commanders of Nawab Siraj-ud-Daula fought fiercely against the British and died on the battlefield?
Ans > Mir Madan and Mohan Lal
- The Grand Treachery: The Battle of Plassey (June 23, 1757) was largely decided before a single shot was fired. Robert Clive of the British East India Company had secretly conspired with Mir Jafar (the commander-in-chief), Rai Durlabh, and the wealthy banker Jagat Seth to betray the young Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daula.
- The Loyal Vanguard: Despite the bulk of the 50,000-strong Bengali army standing completely idle under Mir Jafar’s treacherous orders, Mir Madan (the chief of artillery) and Mohan Lal (the chief secretary) refused to surrender. They led a fierce, desperate vanguard cavalry and artillery assault against the heavily entrenched British forces.
- The Turning Point: Mir Madan fought with extreme courage, inflicting significant casualties, but was fatally struck by a British cannonball in the afternoon. His sudden, bloody death completely shattered the young Nawab’s nerve and remaining morale.
- The Disastrous Aftermath: Siraj-ud-Daula, panicked by the loss of his most loyal commander and intentionally ill-advised by Mir Jafar, ordered a general retreat. This catastrophic order turned a potential stalemate into a total, chaotic rout, directly laying the foundation for 190 years of British imperial rule in India.
π Maratha Empire β’ Literature
Q.5) The Sabhasad Bakhar is considered the most reliable contemporary prose chronicle of Chhatrapati Shivajiβs life. It was written by which Maratha official?
Ans > Krishnaji Anant Sabhasad
- Authorship and Desperate Context: The Sabhasad Bakhar was written by Krishnaji Anant Sabhasad, a senior minister who had personally served under Shivaji. He wrote it in 1697 at the heavily besieged fortress of Jinji, under the direct order of Chhatrapati Rajaram (Shivaji’s younger son), while the Maratha Empire was fighting for its survival against Emperor Aurangzeb.
- Immense Historical Value: Bakhars are Marathi historical narratives. The Sabhasad Bakhar is universally considered the most authentic and earliest available Marathi prose chronicle documenting the life, character, and military campaigns of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, as it was written by an actual eyewitness to the era.
- Detailed Military Accounts: The text meticulously details Shivaji’s innovative guerrilla tactics (Ganimi Kava), his strategic capturing of impregnable hill forts, the legendary assassination of the Bijapuri general Afzal Khan, and his bold, daring escape from Aurangzeb’s house arrest in Agra.
- Insights into Administration: Beyond merely chronicling battles, it provides profound, highly detailed insights into Shivaji’s revolutionary civil administration, his strict enforcement of military discipline (forbidding the looting of civilians), and the structural formation of his Ashta Pradhan (Council of Eight Ministers).
π Chola Empire β’ Architecture
Q.6) The magnificent Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram was built in the 12th century by which Chola Emperor?
Ans > Rajaraja II
- Origins and Location: The Airavatesvara Temple was constructed by the powerful Chola Emperor Rajaraja II in the 12th century CE. Located at Darasuram, near Kumbakonam in Tamil Nadu, it is a vital, celebrated component of the “Great Living Chola Temples” UNESCO World Heritage site.
- The Mythological Legend: Dedicated entirely to Lord Shiva, the temple derives its unique name from Airavata, the pristine, multi-trunked white elephant mount of Lord Indra. According to Hindu mythology, Airavata worshipped a Shiva Lingam at this exact spot to miraculously regain his lost white color after being cursed by Sage Durvasa.
- Architectural Evolution: The front mandapam (pillared hall) is an absolute masterpiece of Dravidian engineering. It is uniquely designed in the form of a gigantic, highly detailed stone chariot being pulled by rearing horses, representing the peak of architectural evolution in the later Chola period.
- Micro-Sculptural Brilliance: Unlike the massive, towering Brihadeeswara Temple at Thanjavur, Airavatesvara is specifically renowned for its extreme, miniature detailing. The base of the temple features hundreds of exquisite micro-sculptures flawlessly depicting stories from the Periya Puranam, showcasing the devoted lives of the 63 Shaivite Nayanar saints.
π Modern History β’ Colonial Era
Q.7) Which British survivor and East India Company official authored the primary, highly sensationalized account of the ‘Black Hole of Calcutta’?
Ans > J.Z. Holwell
- The Calcutta Incident: In June 1756, the young Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daula, successfully captured Fort William (Calcutta) from the East India Company to punish them for building unauthorized fortifications. Following the battle, British prisoners of war were allegedly locked in a tiny, heavily congested guardroom overnight.
- The Propagandist’s Account: John Zephaniah Holwell, an EIC surgeon who had taken temporary command after the governor shamefully fled the fort, was among the captives. He later wrote a highly sensationalized, gruesome account, explicitly claiming that 123 out of 146 prisoners died of agonizing suffocation and heat exhaustion in the “Black Hole.”
- Intense Historical Debate: Modern historians heavily dispute Holwell’s numbers. Mathematical analyses of the room’s dimensions prove it could not physically hold 146 people. Historians estimate the actual death toll was significantly lower, pointing out Holwell’s well-documented history of exaggeration and fabrication to elevate his own status.
- Massive Imperial Impact: Regardless of its historical accuracy, Holwell’s horrific narrative was successfully weaponized in Britain to whip up massive public outrage. It served as the perfect, unquestionable moral justification for Robert Clive’s subsequent military expedition, the Battle of Plassey, and the violent, systematic conquest of Bengal.
π Vijayanagara Empire β’ Military
Q.8) Which powerful Sangama Emperor heavily recruited Muslim cavalrymen and earned the proud title Gajabetegara (Hunter of Elephants)?
Ans > Deva Raya II
- The Greatest Sangama Ruler: Deva Raya II (reigned 1422β1446) was undeniably the most powerful and successful emperor of the Sangama dynasty. Under his aggressive leadership, he oversaw a vast territorial, maritime, and economic expansion of the Vijayanagara Empire across South India.
- Strategic Military Modernization: Realizing that his traditional Hindu armies were repeatedly put at a severe tactical disadvantage by the superior, fast-moving cavalry and highly skilled mounted archers of the rival Bahmani Sultanate, he initiated sweeping, highly pragmatic military reforms.
- Secular and Pragmatic Recruitment: Setting aside religious differences, he boldly inducted over 10,000 highly skilled Muslim Turkish and Afghan archers and cavalrymen directly into his royal army. He granted them wealthy land estates (jagirs) and deeply respected their religious practices by famously placing a copy of the Quran near his throne.
- Titles and Lasting Legacy: His modernized army executed highly successful military campaigns against the Bahmanis, the powerful Gajapatis of Odisha, and rebellious southern chieftains. His unmatched dominance in warfare and elephant capturing earned him the grand, fearsome title “Gajabetegara” (Hunter of Elephants).
π Mughal Empire β’ Religion
Q.9) In 1670, Aurangzeb ordered the complete destruction of which massive, ancient temple in Mathura?
Ans > Keshavdeva (Krishna Janmabhoomi) Temple
- Aurangzeb’s Orthodox Pivot: Emperor Aurangzeb totally abandoned the highly tolerant, syncretic religious policies of his predecessors like Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan. He adopted a deeply orthodox, puritanical approach to Islamic rule, re-imposing the discriminatory Jizya tax and actively destroying prominent Hindu monuments.
- The Mathura Target: In 1670, as part of a sweeping, aggressive campaign of cultural erasure, he specifically ordered the complete destruction of the magnificent Keshavdeva Temple, located at the highly sacred Krishna Janmabhoomi site in Mathura. This massive, ornate temple had actually been heavily patronized and protected by earlier Mughal officials and Rajput nobles.
- Construction of the Shahi Eidgah: To permanently assert imperial and religious dominance over the sacred landscape, Aurangzeb oversaw the immediate construction of the Shahi Eidgah mosque directly over the demolished plinth and foundations of the ancient Hindu temple.
- Deep Political Motivations: While largely driven by intense religious zealotry, this destruction was also highly political. Mathura was a hotbed for Jat rebellions. By destroying their most sacred socio-religious center, Aurangzeb intended to break the spirit, unity, and economic power of the rebellious local Hindu populations in the crucial Delhi-Agra corridor.
π Sur Empire β’ Literature
Q.10) Which historian compiled the Tarikh-i-Sher Shahi under the specific commission of Emperor Akbar?
Ans > Abbas Khan Sarwani
- An Imperial Commission: The Tarikh-i-Sher Shahi (History of Sher Shah) was explicitly commissioned by the Mughal Emperor Akbar. This commission demonstrates Akbar’s immense pragmatism and deep intellectual respect for Sher Shah Suri, the very man who had humiliatingly ousted his father, Humayun, from India.
- The Chosen Author: Akbar entrusted this vital historical task to Abbas Khan Sarwani, a highly respected historian who was connected by marriage to the Sur family. Sarwani had unparalleled access to the aging Afghan nobles and administrators who had personally served in Sher Shah’s court.
- A Focus on Brilliant Administration: Unlike many contemporary royal chronicles that obsessed solely over court gossip, poetry, and battles, this text meticulously details Sher Shah Suri’s brilliant, highly efficient land revenue systems, his massive infrastructure projects (most notably the Grand Trunk Road), and his ruthlessly strict law enforcement.
- Mughal Assimilation of Sur Policies: Akbar heavily utilized this text to deeply study Sher Shah’s successful governance models. The expanding Mughal Empire subsequently absorbed and refined many of Sher Shah’s innovations, laying the crucial bureaucratic groundwork for the highly efficient Mughal administrative state.
π Colonial Era β’ Military
Q.11) During the First Carnatic War, Dupleix captured Madras with the crucial naval assistance of which brilliant French Admiral?
Ans > Bertrand-François Mahé de La Bourdonnais
- The Geopolitical Context: The First Carnatic War (1746β1748) was a direct, explosive Indian extension of the global War of the Austrian Succession in Europe, pitting the heavily armed British East India Company against the fiercely ambitious French Compagnie des Indes.
- The Naval Masterstroke: The highly ambitious French Governor General, Joseph François Dupleix, realizing he lacked sufficient land forces to take heavily fortified British settlements, urgently called upon Admiral Bertrand-François Mahé de La Bourdonnais, the highly capable French Governor of Isle de France (Mauritius).
- The Capture of Madras: La Bourdonnais arrived with a powerful, well-equipped naval squadron, swiftly outmaneuvered the British fleet, and laid a devastating naval bombardment on the city of Madras. His overwhelming firepower forced the British (including a young, captive Robert Clive) to formally surrender the wealthy city in 1746.
- The Bitter French Feud: Following the stunning victory, a massive ego clash erupted. La Bourdonnais pragmatically wanted to return Madras to the British in exchange for a massive cash ransom to fund his fleet, while Dupleix wanted to completely annihilate British presence. This bitter internal division eventually severely weakened French imperial ambitions in India.
π Rajput States β’ Literature
Q.12) The prominent medieval epic poem Prithviraj Raso is traditionally attributed to his court poet and friend:
Ans > Chand Bardai
- The Epic Poem: The Prithviraj Raso is an expansive, heroic epic poem written in an early, highly lyrical dialect of Braj Bhasha mixed with Rajasthani. It spans thousands of verses detailing the life, romances, and martial exploits of the legendary Rajput King, Prithviraj Chauhan.
- The Traditional Author: Traditional Rajput history heavily attributes the authorship of this massive work to Chand Bardai. He is described in the text not just as the royal court poet, but as a deeply loyal childhood friend and trusted military advisor who fought alongside Prithviraj in his campaigns.
- Severe Historical Inaccuracies: While cherished as great literature, it is highly flawed as an objective historical document. It famously and falsely claims that a blinded Prithviraj Chauhan heroically assassinated Sultan Muhammad Ghori in Ghazni using sound-guided archery (Shabdbhedi Baan), contradicting all Persian historical records.
- Massive Cultural Impact: Despite its glaring chronological errors, the Raso remains incredibly vital. It successfully codified the highly romanticized ideals of Rajput chivalry, supreme bravery, and tragic sacrifice, serving as a massive cultural touchstone for Rajput identity and resistance over centuries.
π Administration β’ Revenue
Q.13) Which Mughal administrative official in North India held a position roughly equivalent to the Deshmukh of the Deccan?
Ans > Chaudhari (or Zamindar)
- The Deccan System: In the deeply rooted administrative hierarchy of the Deccan Sultanates and later the Maratha Empire, the Deshmukh was the immensely powerful, hereditary head of a Pargana (a territorial district comprising several villages).
- Roles and Responsibilities: The Deshmukh was primarily responsible for ensuring high agricultural output, collecting land revenue for the state treasury, maintaining strict local law and order, and supplying regional militias during wartime. In exchange, they were granted tax-free lands (watan) and a percentage of the revenue.
- The North Indian Equivalent: Under the highly structured Mughal administrative system operating across the vast plains of North India, this exact socio-economic and political role was fulfilled by the Chaudhari (and more broadly categorized as the Zamindar).
- Shifting Power Dynamics: Both Deshmukhs and Zamindars were deeply entrenched local rural magnates. They often acted as a crucial, necessary bridge between the central imperial authority and the local peasantry, but they also frequently hoarded resources and led massive rebellions when the central state showed signs of military or financial weakness.
π Bengal Sultanate β’ Culture
Q.14) The founder of the Hussain Shahi dynasty of Bengal was deeply respectful of Vaishnava sentiments. Who was he?
Ans > Alauddin Hussain Shah
- A Golden Era of Bengal: Alauddin Hussain Shah successfully founded the Hussain Shahi dynasty in 1494. His long, stable reign is widely regarded by modern historians as the absolute golden age of the independent Bengal Sultanate in terms of cultural brilliance and economic prosperity.
- Remarkable Communal Harmony: His reign is most celebrated for its remarkable, highly progressive religious tolerance. Unlike orthodox rulers of the era, he actively appointed talented Hindus to high administrative, financial, and military positions, deeply bridging the gap between the Muslim ruling elite and the majority Hindu populace.
- Massive Patronage of Literature: He heavily patronized early Bengali literature, generously financing the massive task of translating great Sanskrit epics like the Mahabharata and Ramayana into the local Bengali language, thus democratizing access to these foundational texts for the common people.
- Respect for the Bhakti Movement: Alauddin Hussain Shah showed deep, public respect for the immensely popular Bhakti saint Chaitanya Mahaprabhu and the rapidly rising Gaudiya Vaishnava movement. He issued strict orders to his officials not to disturb their sankirtan (ecstatic devotional singing) processions under any circumstances.
π Colonial India β’ Treaties
Q.15) In 1826, a landmark treaty ended the First Anglo-Burmese War. What is the name of this treaty?
Ans > Treaty of Yandabo
- The Origins of the Conflict: The First Anglo-Burmese War (1824β1826) was a massively expensive, protracted, and brutal conflict. It was directly triggered by the highly aggressive westward military expansion of the Burmese Konbaung dynasty into British-protected territories in Northeast India, particularly Assam and Manipur.
- The Surrender at Yandabo: After suffering severe defeats in pitched battles and experiencing devastatingly high casualties (primarily from tropical diseases rather than combat), the Burmese forces surrendered as a British army marched on their capital. This led to the signing of the landmark Treaty of Yandabo on February 24, 1826.
- Massive Territorial Concessions: The treaty drastically reshaped the geopolitical map of South Asia. The defeated Burmese King was forced to completely and permanently cede the resource-rich, strategic provinces of Assam, Manipur, Arakan, and Tenasserim to the British East India Company.
- Economic and Imperial Impact: Furthermore, Burma was humiliatingly forced to pay a crushing financial indemnity of one million pounds sterling and accept a permanent British resident at their royal court in Ava. This treaty marked the beginning of total British imperial dominance over Northeast India and their gateway into Southeast Asia.
π Vijayanagara Empire β’ Architecture
Q.16) In the courtyard of which Vijayanagara temple is the massive stone chariot (Ratha) of Hampi located?
Ans > Vittala Temple
- An Architectural Masterpiece: The monolithic stone chariot (Ratha) is the most globally recognized icon of Hampi, representing the absolute pinnacle of Vijayanagara art and sculptural brilliance, largely expanded during the glorious reign of Emperor Krishnadevaraya.
- Location and Dedication: It is centrally located within the vast, magnificent courtyard of the Vittala Temple complex. Despite its appearance as a processional vehicle, it is a fully functioning, stationary shrine specifically dedicated to Garuda, the mythical eagle mount of Lord Vishnu.
- The Moving Wheels: The most astonishing engineering feature of this ancient monument is its stone wheels. They are completely detached from the main body and were originally designed to rotate freely on their intricate stone axles, though the government has now cemented them to prevent structural damage by tourists.
- Kalinga Inspiration: Historical records and architectural analyses strongly suggest Krishnadevaraya was deeply inspired to build this marvel after witnessing the massive, intricate wooden chariots of the Konark Sun Temple in Odisha during his highly victorious military campaigns in the Kalinga region.
π Bhakti Movement β’ Literature
Q.17) Which prominent Varkari saint authored the Bhavartha Ramayana in Marathi?
Ans > Eknath
- The Varkari Tradition: Sant Eknath (1533β1599) was a towering, deeply influential figure in the Varkari Bhakti movement of Maharashtra. He acted as a crucial spiritual bridge between the philosophical heights of Sant Dnyaneshwar and the pure, emotional devotion of Sant Tukaram.
- Democratizing Religion: Eknath vehemently opposed the rigid caste system, untouchability, and the orthodox Brahmanical monopoly on religious texts. He dedicated his life to translating highly complex Sanskrit scriptures into simple, everyday Marathi to make them accessible to the common, uneducated masses.
- The Magnum Opus: His absolute masterpiece is the Bhavartha Ramayana, a monumental, highly localized Marathi retelling of the epic Ramayana. It wasn’t just a literal translation, but a deep philosophical commentary laced with contemporary social observations and moral instructions.
- Cultural Mobilization: The text deeply influenced the cultural psyche of Maharashtra. By constantly emphasizing duty, righteousness, and courage against tyranny, Eknath’s work laid the crucial moral and spiritual foundation that eventually fueled Chhatrapati Shivaji’s quest for an independent Maratha state (Hindavi Swarajya).
π Mughal Empire β’ Military
Q.18) Which Mughal Subahdar of Bengal executed the successful military campaign to expel the Portuguese from Hughli in 1632?
Ans > Qasim Khan Juyani
- Unchecked Portuguese Aggression: By the early 17th century, the Portuguese settlement at Hughli in Bengal had grown extremely arrogant, heavily fortified, and powerful. They violently monopolized the salt trade, heavily engaged in aggressive slave trading, and forcibly converted local populations to Christianity.
- Shah Jahan’s Wrath: These illegal activities, particularly the kidnapping of Mughal subjects and the capture of two of Empress Mumtaz Mahal’s favored slave girls, deeply enraged Emperor Shah Jahan. He issued strict, immediate orders to utterly crush the Portuguese presence.
- The Massive Siege: Mughal Subahdar (Governor) Qasim Khan Juyani meticulously orchestrated the campaign in 1632. He deployed a massive army, blocked the river with a boom of boats to prevent naval reinforcements or escape, and laid a brutal, months-long siege to the heavily fortified Portuguese factories.
- The Decisive Victory: The Mughal forces eventually breached the walls by detonating a massive mine, resulting in the slaughter or capture of thousands of Portuguese soldiers and civilians. This decisive victory permanently shattered Portuguese political and economic dominance in the wealthy province of Bengal.
π Mughal Empire β’ Administration
Q.19) In the military organization of the Mughal Empire, how were the Dakhili troops maintained and commanded?
Ans > They were recruited and paid directly by the central state but were placed under the command of individual Mansabdars.
- The Mansabdari Framework: Introduced by Emperor Akbar, the Mansabdari system was the unique, central pillar of Mughal military and civil administration. Every noble (Mansabdar) was assigned a rank (Zat and Sawar) dictating the exact number of cavalry troops they were required to maintain for the Emperor.
- The Problem of Troop Quality: While top-tier nobles maintained excellent contingents, lesser Mansabdars often presented poorly trained horses, fake soldiers, and ill-equipped men during imperial muster, severely weakening the overall fighting capability of the Mughal army during critical battles.
- The Dakhili Solution: To guarantee a core of highly trained, extremely loyal, and well-equipped soldiers, the central imperial state directly recruited, vetted, armed, and paid a special category of supplementary soldiers known specifically as the Dakhili troops.
- Operational Command Structure: Instead of forming a separate, massive imperial regiment, these state-funded Dakhili soldiers were strategically distributed and placed under the direct operational command of individual Mansabdars. This effectively allowed the state to artificially bolster the quality and size of a noble’s contingent during active war campaigns without giving the noble more financial power.
π Late Medieval β’ Military
Q.20) During the Rohilla War of 1774, the British rented troops to an Indian ruler to annex Rohilkhand. Who was this ruler?
Ans > Shuja-ud-Daula (Nawab of Awadh)
- Coveting Rohilkhand: Nawab Shuja-ud-Daula of Awadh deeply coveted the fertile, wealthy, and strategically located neighboring territory of Rohilkhand, which was controlled by the fiercely independent, martial Afghan Rohilla tribes.
- The Mercenary Deal: Unable to defeat the formidable Rohillas alone, the Nawab approached Warren Hastings, the Governor-General of the British East India Company. Hastings, desperately needing funds to alleviate the Company’s massive debts, agreed to a highly controversial mercenary contract.
- Renting an Army: In exchange for a massive, upfront payment of 40 lakh rupees and ongoing war expenses, Hastings blatantly rented out highly disciplined British EIC troops (the Bengal Army) to fight entirely on behalf of the Nawab of Awadh.
- Brutal Annexation: The combined British and Awadh forces decisively crushed the Afghan Rohillas at the Battle of Miranpur Katra in 1774. Rohilkhand was annexed to Awadh, triggering massive outrage and an impeachment trial in the British Parliament over Hastings’ deeply unethical, mercenary use of company troops as guns for hire.
π Mughal Empire β’ Administration
Q.21) Which brilliant military commander served as the Wakil during Akbar’s minority and was the first to be bestowed the title Khan-i-Khanan?
Ans > Bairam Khan
- The Guardian of the Empire: Bairam Khan was a brilliantly capable, battle-hardened Turcoman general who had faithfully served Emperor Humayun during his long, bitter 15-year exile in Persia and heavily assisted in his eventual, successful reconquest of Delhi.
- The Second Battle of Panipat: When Humayun died suddenly in 1556 after falling down his library stairs, Akbar was merely 13 years old. Bairam Khan took absolute charge as the Regent (Wakil), brilliantly leading the Mughal forces to crush the massive army of Hemu at the Second Battle of Panipat, firmly securing the throne.
- The First Khan-i-Khanan: For his unparalleled loyalty and military genius in saving the nascent empire, the young Akbar bestowed upon him the ultimate imperial title of “Khan-i-Khanan” (Commander of Commanders), a title previously unseen in the early Mughal hierarchy.
- His Downfall: Bairam Khan ruled as the de facto emperor for four years (1556β1560). However, his increasingly arrogant, autocratic style and strict Shia faith alienated the powerful Sunni nobility. Akbar, who had come of age, successfully outmaneuvered him, famously dismissed him, and sent him on a forced pilgrimage to Mecca, during which he was assassinated.
π Early Medieval β’ Invasions
Q.22) The ancient Buddhist university of Vikramashila in Bihar was completely destroyed around 1193 CE by the forces of:
Ans > Bakhtiyar Khalji
- The Pala Legacy: The magnificent Vikramashila University, located in modern-day Bihar, was established by the great Emperor Dharmapala in the 8th century. It quickly grew into one of the world’s most prestigious centers for Vajrayana Buddhism and advanced Tantric studies, rivaling Nalanda.
- The Ghurid Invasions: In the late 12th century, Muhammad Ghori’s ruthless and highly ambitious general, Ikhtiyaruddin Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji, launched devastating, lightning-fast cavalry raids across the politically fragmented plains of Bihar and Bengal.
- A Tragic Misidentification: The massive, towering brick walls and highly structured quadrangles of Buddhist monastic universities like Nalanda, Odantapuri, and Vikramashila were tragically misidentified by Khalji’s illiterate nomadic forces as heavily fortified enemy military garrisons.
- Complete Cultural Annihilation: Around 1193 CE, Khalji’s forces brutally sacked Vikramashila. They slaughtered thousands of defenseless, shaven-headed monks and systematically burned down the colossal libraries containing centuries of irreplaceable manuscripts, dealing a catastrophic, irreversible death blow to Buddhism in its Indian homeland.
π Sikh Empire β’ Military
Q.23) Which Misl was led by the legendary warrior Jassa Singh, who conquered Kapurthala?
Ans > Ahluwalia Misl
- Formation of the Dal Khalsa: During the highly chaotic 18th century, following the decline of the Mughal Empire, the Sikh warriors organized themselves into the Dal Khalsa. This was further divided into twelve highly mobile, sovereign military confederacies known as Misls, each controlling different territories.
- Rise of Jassa Singh: Jassa Singh Ahluwalia emerged as one of the most brilliant, fearless, and deeply respected military commanders of the entire Sikh Confederacy, founding and leading the powerful Ahluwalia Misl.
- Resisting the Afghans: While the Mughals crumbled, Jassa Singh took on the terrifying, repeated invasions of the Afghan warlord Ahmad Shah Abdali. He masterminded devastating guerrilla raids on Abdaliβs supply lines and successfully rescued thousands of captive Indian women being taken as slaves to Afghanistan.
- Massive Territorial Conquests: Under his aggressive, brilliant leadership, the Ahluwalia Misl conquered immense territory in the fertile Doab region, successfully captured the strategic city of Lahore, and permanently established the powerful Kapurthala State, laying the bedrock for the future Sikh Empire.
π European Exploration β’ Trade
Q.24) Which English explorer attempted to reach India overland via Russia and Persia in 1553?
Ans > Anthony Jenkinson
- The Portuguese Monopoly: In the 16th century, the Portuguese Empire held an incredibly tight, lucrative, and heavily armed monopoly over the sea route to India via the Cape of Good Hope, aggressively sinking or capturing rival European merchant ships.
- English Desperation: Desperate to bypass this blockade and access the immensely wealthy Asian spice and silk trade, English merchants formed the Muscovy Company to explore radically alternative, uncharted, and dangerous overland routes to the East.
- The Audacious Journey: In 1558, the English explorer Anthony Jenkinson undertook an incredibly dangerous overland expedition. He traveled to Moscow, sailed down the freezing Volga River, crossed the treacherous Caspian Sea, and miraculously reached the trading hub of Bukhara in Central Asia.
- Commercial Failure, Historic Precedent: Jenkinson hoped to establish a massive overland caravan route linking England to India and Persia. While his mission proved that the route was far too dangerous and commercially unviable due to bandits, wars, and rough terrain, it laid the crucial exploratory groundwork for future British diplomatic and trade missions in Asia.
π Colonial India β’ Trade
Q.25) In 1668, the island of Bombay was officially transferred to the English East India Company for what annual rent?
Ans > Β£10 in gold
- The Royal Dowry: The strategically located, seven-island archipelago of Bombay was originally controlled by the Portuguese. In 1661, it was given to King Charles II of England as part of the royal dowry when he married the Portuguese princess, Catherine of Braganza.
- A Royal Burden: King Charles II quickly realized that administering and militarily defending this distant, malaria-infested island from the rising Marathas and the powerful Mughals was a massive financial and logistical drain on the English Crown.
- The Historic Transfer: In 1668, seeking to immediately offload the financial burden, the King issued a Royal Charter officially transferring full administrative, judicial, and military control of Bombay to the British East India Company.
- The Nominal Rent: The EIC eagerly agreed to take over the island for a shockingly low, perpetual annual rent of just Β£10 in gold. The Company subsequently heavily fortified the harbor, relocated their headquarters from Surat, and rapidly transformed Bombay into the undisputed economic powerhouse of British India.
π Mughal Empire β’ Architecture
Q.26) What was the name of the special pavilion Humayun built consisting of differently colored halls corresponding to the planets?
Ans > Khana-i-Tilism (or Qasr-i-Ruqaiyyah) / Tilsmat
- The Eccentric Emperor: Mughal Emperor Humayun possessed a deeply complex, highly eccentric personality. Unlike his highly pragmatic father Babur, Humayun was deeply fascinated by the occult sciences, mysticism, and especially the rigorous study of astrology and planetary movements.
- The Mystical Pavilion: To physically manifest his deep cosmic beliefs into his daily imperial administration, he constructed a highly unique, deeply symbolic pavilion in his court, known as the Khana-i-Tilism (House of Magic/Mystery) or the Qasr-i-Ruqaiyyah.
- Astrological Architecture: This architectural oddity was meticulously divided into seven distinct halls. Each hall was painted in a specific color meticulously chosen to correspond with the seven known celestial planets (e.g., Sunday was a yellow hall for the Sun, Monday a white hall for the Moon, Tuesday a red hall for Mars).
- Strict Imperial Protocol: Humayun took this astrological obsession incredibly seriously. He forced his entire court to dress in clothes matching the color of the day’s ruling planet, and he would conduct specific types of state business only in the astronomically appropriate colored hall.
π South Indian History β’ Society
Q.27) What were the two major socio-economic factions of mercantile and artisan communities in South India called?
Ans > Idangai (Left Hand) and Valangai (Right Hand)
- A Unique Social Chasm: During the early medieval period, particularly from the later Chola era onwards, South Indian society developed a highly rigid, unique, and deeply entrenched socio-economic division known as the dual faction system, completely distinct from North Indian Varna divisions.
- The Two Massive Factions: Entire castes and communities were broadly classified into two massive rival camps: the Valangai (Right Hand) and the Idangai (Left Hand) factions. This division governed social interactions, living quarters, and temple rights.
- Economic Composition: The Valangai faction was generally composed of powerful, land-owning agricultural castes and established agrarian laborers. In stark contrast, the Idangai faction primarily comprised the rising, wealthy, but socially marginalized mercantile, artisan, and weaver communities seeking higher status.
- Violent and Perpetual Clashes: These two factions were locked in perpetual, bitter rivalry. They frequently clashed violently in the streets over seemingly minor social privileges, such as the right to use certain umbrellas, ride horses in processions, or receive specific honors during major temple festivals.
π Delhi Sultanate β’ Architecture
Q.28) Which Sultan undertook the highly ambitious project of relocating two massive Ashokan pillars to his new capital in Delhi?
Ans > Firuz Shah Tughlaq
- The Builder Sultan: Firuz Shah Tughlaq is deeply renowned in the Delhi Sultanate for his massive public works programs. He built extensive canals, hospitals, and entirely new cities like Hisar, Jaunpur, and his sprawling capital, Firozabad (Feroz Shah Kotla) in Delhi.
- Fascination with Antiquity: Unlike many medieval rulers who destroyed pre-Islamic monuments, Firuz Shah developed a profound, obsessive fascination with the massive, ancient monolithic pillars erected by Emperor Ashoka over 1,500 years earlier, whose Brahmi script no one in his court could translate.
- The Monumental Relocation: He orchestrated incredible engineering feats to transport two colossal pillarsβone from Topra (Haryana) and another from Meerut (Uttar Pradesh). The pillars were carefully wrapped in reeds, rolled onto specially constructed 42-wheeled carts pulled by hundreds of men, and floated down the Yamuna river on massive barges.
- Triumphant Installation: He triumphantly erected the Topra pillar atop a specially built three-tiered stone pyramid structure inside his Feroz Shah Kotla fortress, treating it as a massive, prestigious trophy of his imperial power and connecting his dynasty to an ancient, glorious past.
π Maratha Empire β’ Administration
Q.29) Who was the brilliant statesman who masterminded and led the ‘Barbhai Council’ in Maratha history?
Ans > Nana Phadnavis
- The Peshwa Succession Crisis: In 1773, the Maratha Empire was plunged into a deep, bloody crisis when the treacherous Raghunath Rao (Raghoba) orchestrated the brutal assassination of his own nephew, the reigning Peshwa Narayan Rao, in a desperate, violent bid to seize the throne.
- Rise of the Maratha Machiavelli: Nana Phadnavis, an incredibly brilliant and shrewd administrator, flatly refused to accept Raghunath Rao’s illegal usurpation, especially after Narayan Rao’s widow gave birth to a posthumous son, the rightful heir, Madhav Rao II.
- The Council of Twelve: To save the empire, Nana Phadnavis masterminded the formation of the “Barbhai Council” (Council of Twelve). He successfully united twelve of the most powerful and fiercely independent Maratha chiefs, including the formidable military commanders Mahadji Sindhia and Tukoji Holkar.
- Saving the Maratha Empire: The Barbhai Council successfully outmaneuvered and deposed Raghunath Rao, driving him to seek help from the British. The council ruled the empire effectively as a powerful regency board, protecting the infant Peshwa and successfully holding off British expansion during the grueling First Anglo-Maratha War.
π Malwa Sultanate β’ Architecture
Q.30) Which Sultan initiated the construction of the magnificent Jami Masjid of Mandu?
Ans > Hoshang Shah
- The Glory of Mandu: The Malwa Sultanate reached its absolute architectural and cultural zenith in its heavily fortified, picturesque plateau capital city of Mandu, renowned for its romantic palaces, vast artificial lakes, and massive Afghan-style monuments.
- Hoshang Shah’s Grand Vision: The second Sultan of Malwa, Hoshang Shah (1406β1435), was a fierce warrior and a great patron of architecture. Desiring a central congregational mosque worthy of his wealth, he initiated the construction of the city’s most colossal and imposing structure, the Jami Masjid.
- Architectural Inspiration: The design of this magnificent mosque was heavily inspired by the great Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, Syria. It features a massive, austere courtyard surrounded by immense, perfectly proportioned colonnades, projecting an aura of solemn, majestic grandeur without excessive ornamentation.
- Completion by Successors: While Hoshang Shah laid the grand foundations and designed the overall structure, the massive mosque, which can accommodate thousands of worshippers, was finally completed in 1454 by his highly ambitious successor, Mahmud Khalji, cementing Mandu’s status as a premier architectural center in medieval India.
π Quick Summary β Medieval History Set 61
- Delhi Sultanate: Fawazil denoted the excess surplus revenue remitted by an Iqtadar to the central treasury.
- Deccan Revenue: Malik Ambar modernized Ahmadnagar’s revenue system by adapting Raja Todar Mal’s Zabti system.
- Architecture: Rana Kumbha built the Vijay Stambha to celebrate his monumental victory over the Malwa Sultanate.
- Battle of Plassey: Mir Madan and Mohan Lal remained fiercely loyal to Siraj-ud-Daula and died in combat.
- Maratha Literature: Krishnaji Anant Sabhasad authored the highly celebrated Sabhasad Bakhar.
- Chola Empire: Emperor Rajaraja II built the magnificent Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram in the 12th century.
- Colonial Propaganda: J.Z. Holwell authored the highly sensationalized “Black Hole of Calcutta” account.
- Vijayanagara: Deva Raya II modernized his army with Muslim cavalry and earned the proud title Gajabetegara.
- Mughal Religious Policy: Aurangzeb destroyed the Keshavdeva Temple in Mathura in 1670.
- Sur Administration: Abbas Khan Sarwani compiled the Tarikh-i-Sher Shahi for Emperor Akbar.
- First Carnatic War: French Admiral La Bourdonnais provided crucial naval assistance to Dupleix to capture Madras.
- Rajput Chivalry: Chand Bardai is traditionally attributed with authoring the epic Prithviraj Raso.
- Rural Administration: The Deshmukh of the Deccan was roughly equivalent to the North Indian Chaudhari or Zamindar.
- Bengal Sultanate: Alauddin Hussain Shah founded the highly tolerant Hussain Shahi dynasty in 1494.
- Anglo-Burmese Wars: The landmark Treaty of Yandabo (1826) officially ended the First Anglo-Burmese War.
- Hampi Architecture: The moving monolithic stone chariot is located in the beautiful Vittala Temple courtyard.
- Varkari Saints: Sant Eknath authored the monumental Bhavartha Ramayana in Marathi.
- Expulsion of Portuguese: Mughal Subahdar Qasim Khan Juyani destroyed the Portuguese settlement at Hughli in 1632.
- Mansabdari System: Dakhili troops were state-recruited and paid soldiers placed under individual Mansabdar command.
- Rohilla War: The EIC ruthlessly rented British troops to Nawab Shuja-ud-Daula to help conquer Rohilkhand.
- Akbar’s Minority: Bairam Khan served as the absolute Wakil and was the very first Khan-i-Khanan under Akbar.
- Destruction of Universities: The forces of Bakhtiyar Khalji destroyed the Vikramashila university around 1193 CE.
- Sikh Confederacy: Legendary warrior Jassa Singh led the Ahluwalia Misl against Afghan invasions.
- Overland Trade: English explorer Anthony Jenkinson attempted to reach India overland via Russia and Persia in 1553.
- Bombay Transfer: The EIC leased Bombay from the English Crown for an incredibly low annual rent of just Β£10 in gold.
- Humayun’s Court: Humayun constructed the astrologically aligned Khana-i-Tilism pavilion with differently colored halls.
- Social Hierarchy: Idangai (Left Hand) and Valangai (Right Hand) were major socio-economic factions in South India.
- Ashokan Pillars: Firuz Shah Tughlaq undertook massive engineering projects to relocate two ancient pillars to Delhi.
- Maratha Politics: The brilliant statesman Nana Phadnavis masterminded the Barbhai Council to protect the infant Peshwa.
- Malwa Sultanate: Hoshang Shah initiated the massive construction of the Afghan-style Jami Masjid of Mandu.
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