Polity Set 98
π
π Parliament β’ Procedures
Q.1) In the Indian Parliament, what is the time immediately following the Question Hour known as, during which members can raise matters without any prior notice?
Ans > B) Zero Hour
- Indian Innovation in Parliament: The concept of Zero Hour is an entirely Indian parliamentary innovation that has been in existence since 1962. Unlike the Question Hour, which is strictly codified, it is not formally mentioned in the parliamentary rules of procedure, making it an informal device available to the Members of Parliament.
- Timing and Daily Schedule: In the daily schedule of the Indian Parliament, the Zero Hour typically starts exactly at 12 noon, which gives it its unique name. It serves as the bridge between the end of the Question Hour and the beginning of the regular legislative business of the day.
- Raising Urgent Public Matters: During this specific time, members can raise matters of immense and urgent public importance without requiring the mandatory ten days’ prior notice. However, a member must still inform the Speaker of the Lok Sabha or the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha before 10 AM on the day of the sitting to get approval to raise the issue.
π Parliament β’ Sessions
Q.2) The term “Lame-duck session” refers to:
Ans > C) The last session of the existing Lok Sabha after a new Lok Sabha has been elected
- Definition of Lame-Ducks: The term “lame-duck” specifically refers to the sitting Members of Parliament in the current Lok Sabha who have failed to secure re-election to the newly constituted Lok Sabha. Their political influence is considered significantly diminished during this transitional phase.
- Timing of the Session: This unique session takes place after the results of the new general elections have been declared but strictly before the newly elected Lok Sabha officially convenes for its very first sitting. It marks the absolute final gathering of the outgoing assembly.
- Purpose and Significance: The primary purpose of conducting a lame-duck session is to officially wrap up any remaining, critically pending legislative business that cannot be delayed. It ensures a smooth, democratic transition of power and legislative continuity between the outgoing parliament and the incoming, newly elected body.
π Parliament β’ Sessions
Q.3) “Adjournment sine die” means:
Ans > A) Terminating a sitting of Parliament for an indefinite period (without naming a day for reassembly)
- Meaning of the Latin Term: The phrase “sine die” is a Latin term that directly translates to “without assigning a day.” In a parliamentary context, it means the House is dismissed, and no specific date or time has been fixed for its next meeting.
- Authority of the Presiding Officer: The power of adjournment, as well as adjournment sine die, lies exclusively with the presiding officer of the House. This means the Speaker holds this power in the Lok Sabha, while the Chairman holds it in the Rajya Sabha.
- Reassembly After Declaration: Even after a House has been adjourned sine die, the presiding officer retains the authority to call a sitting of the House at any time. They can summon the members before the originally intended date or after an indefinite suspension if urgent matters arise.
π Parliament β’ Sessions
Q.4) While adjournment sine die is declared by the presiding officer, which action terminates a session of the House and is done by the President?
Ans > B) Prorogation
- Constitutional Authority: According to Article 85(2)(a) of the Indian Constitution, the power to prorogue either House of the Parliament is vested exclusively in the President of India. The President acts upon the advice of the Council of Ministers to officially bring a session to a close.
- Impact on Legislative Business: Unlike an adjournment that merely pauses a daily sitting, prorogation completely terminates the session itself. However, it does not mean the end of the Lok Sabha. Crucially, pending bills do not lapse upon prorogation, though all pending notices (other than those for introducing bills) do lapse.
- The Procedural Timeline: Normally, the presiding officer (Speaker or Chairman) declares the House adjourned sine die upon the completion of the business of a session. Within a few days following this declaration, the President issues the official formal notification for the prorogation of the session.
π Parliament β’ Sessions
Q.5) Which of the following terminates the life of the Lok Sabha and triggers general elections?
Ans > C) Dissolution
- Irrevocable Termination: Dissolution completely ends the life of the existing Lok Sabha, meaning the House ceases to exist until a new one is constituted after general elections. Unlike the Lok Sabha, the Rajya Sabha is a permanent constitutional chamber and is never subject to dissolution.
- Types of Dissolution: There are two ways the Lok Sabha can be dissolved. First, automatic dissolution occurs when the House successfully completes its normal tenure of five years. Second, the President can dissolve the House earlier if authorized by the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers.
- Lapsing of Legislative Bills: Dissolution has a massive impact on legislative business. Any bill pending in the Lok Sabha, whether originating there or transmitted by the Rajya Sabha, immediately lapses. However, a bill pending in the Rajya Sabha that has not yet been passed by the Lok Sabha does not lapse.
π Parliament β’ Parliamentary Rules
Q.6) What is the quorum required to constitute a meeting of either House of Parliament?
Ans > B) One-tenth of the total membership
- Constitutional Mandate: Article 100(3) of the Indian Constitution strictly mandates the quorum requirement. Quorum represents the absolute minimum number of members who must be physically present in the House to legally conduct any parliamentary business or debate.
- Calculating the Numbers: The requirement is set at one-tenth of the total membership of each House, and this count officially includes the presiding officer. This means the Lok Sabha requires a minimum of 55 members present, while the Rajya Sabha requires at least 25 members to proceed.
- Duty of the Presiding Officer: If there is a lack of quorum at any given time during a meeting of the House, the Constitution places a direct duty upon the Speaker or Chairman. They must either adjourn the House completely or suspend the meeting until the required quorum is re-established.
π Parliament β’ Legislative Procedure
Q.7) When the undiscussed clauses of a bill or a resolution are put to vote along with the discussed ones due to want of time, this parliamentary procedure is known as:
Ans > D) Guillotine closure
- Mechanism of the Procedure: A Guillotine closure is an extreme form of a closure motion. When time allocated for a debate runs out, the Speaker groups together all the remaining undiscussed clauses of a bill or resolution and puts them directly to a vote alongside the clauses that were actually discussed.
- Usage During the Budget: This mechanism is most famously and frequently used during the passing of the Union Budget. Because the Parliament cannot physically debate the financial demands of every single government ministry, the Speaker “guillotines” the remaining demands on the last allotted day, passing them without any debate.
- Impact on Democratic Debate: While it is a necessary tool for time management and ensuring the government’s legislative agenda moves forward, critics argue it compromises democratic scrutiny, as laws and massive financial expenditures are passed without elected representatives examining the finer details.
π Parliament β’ Parliamentary Procedures
Q.8) A member can raise a ‘Point of Order’ when:
Ans > B) The proceedings of the House do not follow the normal rules of procedure
- Purpose of the Motion: A Point of Order is an extraordinary parliamentary device designed to ensure that the House strictly adheres to its constitutional guidelines and established rules of procedure. It is essentially a mechanism to call out procedural irregularities happening in real-time on the floor.
- Effect on Parliamentary Business: Because procedural integrity is paramount, raising a Point of Order has an immediate halting effect. The moment it is raised, the ongoing debate or business of the House is instantly suspended until the presiding officer resolves the procedural dispute.
- Finality of the Decision: The Speaker of the Lok Sabha or the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha has absolute and final authority in deciding whether the Point of Order is valid. Once the presiding officer delivers a ruling on the matter, no further debate or argument is permitted on that ruling.
π Parliament β’ Political Parties
Q.9) Every political party in Parliament has its own leader authorized to ensure the attendance of its members and secure their support in favor of or against a particular issue. This official is known as the:
Ans > C) Whip
- Basis of the Office: Interestingly, the office of the Whip is neither mentioned in the Indian Constitution nor outlined in the official Rules of the House. Instead, it is a critical office entirely based on deep-rooted conventions of the parliamentary form of government inherited from the British system.
- Core Responsibilities: The Whip acts as an authoritative manager for a political party. Their primary job is to ensure that party members attend the House in large numbers during crucial voting sessions and strictly vote in alignment with the official party line and ideology.
- Link to Anti-Defection Law: Defying a direct directive (often called a “Three-line whip”) from the party Whip has severe consequences. Under the Tenth Schedule of the Constitution (Anti-Defection Law), a member who votes contrary to the Whip’s instructions can be immediately disqualified from their parliamentary seat.
π Parliament β’ Lok Sabha
Q.10) When the Lok Sabha is newly elected, the President appoints a temporary Speaker to preside over the first sitting and administer oaths to new members. This official is called the:
Ans > B) Speaker Pro Tem
- Appointment and Tradition: As soon as a new Lok Sabha is elected, the previous Speaker vacates the office. To fill this void temporarily, the President of India appoints a Speaker Pro Tem. By long-standing parliamentary convention, the senior-most member of the Lok Sabha is chosen for this role.
- Oath of Office: Unlike regular Members of Parliament who receive their oath from the Speaker or a delegated official, the Speaker Pro Tem is uniquely administered the oath of office directly by the President of India at the Rashtrapati Bhavan before the first session begins.
- Primary Duties and Tenure: The main duty of the Speaker Pro Tem is to administer the oath to all newly elected Members of Parliament and to preside over the House during the election of the new, permanent Speaker. The moment the new Speaker is elected, the office of the Speaker Pro Tem instantly ceases to exist.
π Parliament β’ Presiding Officers
Q.11) The Vice-President acts as the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha. Like the Speaker, the Chairman cannot vote in the first instance, but can exercise a casting vote in the case of:
Ans > C) An equality of votes (a tie)
- Constitutional Provision: Article 100(1) of the Indian Constitution specifically outlines voting procedures in the Parliament. It dictates that the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha (or the Speaker of the Lok Sabha) shall not vote in the first instance when a general division of votes occurs on any bill or motion.
- Breaking the Deadlock: The sole purpose of granting a casting vote to the presiding officer is to resolve an absolute deadlock. If the “Ayes” (those in favor) and “Noes” (those against) are perfectly equal, the Chairman exercises this casting vote to finally decide the fate of the motion.
- Convention of Impartiality: While legally permitted to vote however they choose during a tie, a strong parliamentary convention dictates that the presiding officer should exercise the casting vote to maintain the status quo. This means voting in a way that does not alter existing laws or force sudden, drastic changes.
π Parliament β’ Financial Committees
Q.12) The three major financial committees of Parliament are the Public Accounts Committee, the Estimates Committee, and the:
Ans > C) Committee on Public Undertakings
- Origins and Creation: The Committee on Public Undertakings was strictly created in 1964. Its formation was a direct result of the recommendations made by the Krishna Menon Committee, which felt a dedicated body was necessary to oversee the expanding public sector in post-independence India.
- Composition and Election: The committee consists of exactly 22 members, with 15 drawn from the Lok Sabha and 7 from the Rajya Sabha. These members are elected annually by the Parliament using the principle of proportional representation by means of a single transferable vote, ensuring all major parties are represented.
- Core Mandate: Its primary function is to meticulously examine the reports and accounts of Public Sector Undertakings (PSUs). It also heavily relies on the audit reports provided by the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) to assess whether these government businesses are operating efficiently and following sound commercial practices.
π Parliament β’ Financial Committees
Q.13) Which of the following is the largest committee of the Parliament, consisting of 30 members exclusively from the Lok Sabha?
Ans > C) Estimates Committee
- Historical Foundation: The origins of this committee trace back to British India in 1921. However, the first Estimates Committee of independent India was constituted in 1950 based on the vital recommendation of the then Finance Minister, John Mathai.
- Exclusive Membership Rule: The Estimates Committee is entirely unique among the major financial committees because it consists of 30 members drawn exclusively from the Lok Sabha. The Rajya Sabha is entirely excluded from this committee because the Constitution grants the Lok Sabha supreme authority over financial matters and taxation.
- The “Continuous Economy” Role: The committee’s central mandate is to thoroughly examine the government’s budget estimates and heavily scrutinize administrative spending. By continually suggesting alternative policies to bring about efficiency and reduce waste in administration, it has earned the nickname of the “continuous economy committee.”
π Non-Constitutional Bodies β’ Planning
Q.14) Which body was established on January 1, 2015, replacing the erstwhile Planning Commission?
Ans > C) NITI Aayog
- Nature of the Institution: NITI Aayog (National Institution for Transforming India) is neither a constitutional body (not created by the Constitution) nor a statutory body (not created by an Act of Parliament). It was formed via an executive resolution passed by the Union Cabinet on January 1, 2015.
- Shift in Policy Approach: The creation of NITI Aayog marked a massive philosophical shift in Indian governance. It replaced the Soviet-style, top-down command economic model of the Planning Commission with a bottom-up approach, emphasizing “cooperative federalism” where states act as equal partners in national development.
- Leadership and Structure: The Prime Minister of India serves as the ex-officio Chairperson of NITI Aayog. To ensure robust state participation, its Governing Council comprises the Chief Ministers of all Indian States and the Lieutenant Governors of Union Territories, heavily distinguishing it from the centralized nature of the old Planning Commission.
π Constitutional Bodies β’ Finance
Q.15) Which constitutional authority is described as the guardian of the public purse and controls the entire financial system of the country at both Centre and state levels?
Ans > D) The Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India
- Constitutional Independence: Article 148 of the Indian Constitution establishes the independent office of the CAG. To protect the CAG from political pressure, they are provided strict security of tenure, serving a term of 6 years or up to the age of 65, and their salary is charged directly to the Consolidated Fund of India.
- Comprehensive Auditing Scope: The CAG possesses the sweeping authority to audit all receipts and expenditures of both the Government of India and all individual State Governments. They ensure that funds legally sanctioned by the Parliament or State Legislatures were utilized for the exact purpose they were intended.
- Relationship with Parliament: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar heavily emphasized that the CAG is the most important officer under the Constitution. The CAG’s audit reports are heavily utilized by the Public Accounts Committee (PAC), making the CAG functionally known as the “friend, philosopher, and guide” to the PAC in holding the executive accountable.
π Constitutional Bodies β’ Finance
Q.16) Which constitutional body makes recommendations to the President as to the distribution between the Union and the States of the net proceeds of taxes?
Ans > B) Finance Commission
- Constitutional Mandate: The Finance Commission is a highly crucial quasi-judicial constitutional body established under Article 280 of the Constitution. The President of India is strictly mandated to constitute this commission every five years, or even earlier if deemed necessary.
- Core Responsibilities: Its primary duty is to establish the specific formula for the “vertical” distribution of net tax proceeds between the Central Government and the States, as well as the “horizontal” allocation of these funds among the individual states based on population, income distance, and geographic area.
- Advisory Status: While the Finance Commission’s meticulously calculated recommendations carry enormous weight and are almost always accepted by the Central Government, they are strictly advisory in nature. The government is not legally bound to implement them, though rejecting them would invite heavy political backlash.
π Constitutional Bodies β’ Election Commission
Q.17) The Chief Election Commissioner holds office for a term of six years or until they attain the age of:
Ans > C) 65 years
- Appointment and Independence: The Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) is appointed directly by the President of India. To ensure they can conduct free and fair elections without fear of government reprisal, they enjoy a secure tenure of six years or up to the age of 65 years, whichever occurs first.
- Stringent Removal Process: The Constitution provides rigorous safeguards for the CEC. They cannot be removed from office at the mere pleasure of the government. Their removal process is identical to that of a Supreme Court Judge, requiring a difficult special majority in both Houses of Parliament on grounds of proved misbehavior or incapacity.
- Equality Among Commissioners: The Election Commission is a multi-member body comprising the CEC and two other Election Commissioners. Crucially, the CEC does not have veto power; all three commissioners hold equal power, draw the exact same salary, and all major electoral disputes are decided by a simple majority vote among them.
π Constitutional Bodies β’ UPSC
Q.18) The Chairman and members of the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC) hold office for a term of six years or until they attain the age of:
Ans > C) 65 years
- Constitutional Framework: The UPSC is the central recruiting agency in India, established under Articles 315 to 323 (Part XIV) of the Constitution. The President of India appoints the Chairman and the members, acting as an independent watchdog of the merit system.
- Tenure and Removal Mechanics: They hold office for six years or until reaching 65 years of age. To protect their independence from political interference, the President can only remove them for “proved misbehavior” after the Supreme Court of India holds a binding inquiry and explicitly recommends their removal.
- Post-Retirement Restrictions: To ensure complete impartiality and prevent officials from currying favor with the government for future jobs, the Constitution strictly bars the UPSC Chairman from accepting any further employment under the Government of India or any State Government after their retirement.
π Constitutional Bodies β’ SPSC
Q.19) The Chairman and members of a State Public Service Commission (SPSC) hold office for a term of six years or until they attain the age of:
Ans > B) 62 years
- Divergent Age Limits: While SPSC members share the same six-year term length as their UPSC counterparts, their retirement age is strictly capped at 62 years (compared to the UPSC’s 65 years). This age discrepancy allows outstanding SPSC members to later be elevated to the UPSC.
- Appointment vs. Removal Nuance: A highly unique constitutional feature applies to the SPSC: while the Governor of the specific state heavily exercises the power to appoint the Chairman and members, the Governor does NOT have the power to remove them. They can strictly only be removed by the President of India.
- Joint Commissions (JSPSC): The Constitution allows for the creation of a Joint State Public Service Commission for two or more states if requested. However, unlike the UPSC and SPSC which are constitutional bodies, a JSPSC is a statutory body created directly by an Act of Parliament.
π Constitutional Bodies β’ State Executive
Q.20) The Advocate General of a State (the highest law officer in the state) is appointed by the:
Ans > D) Governor
- Constitutional Role: Established under Article 165 of the Indian Constitution, the Advocate General serves as the absolute highest law officer within a state government. They are legally mandated to advise the state government on complex legal matters and perform duties assigned by the Governor.
- Strict Qualifications: The eligibility criteria for this office are exceptionally high. To be appointed as an Advocate General, a person must strictly possess the exact qualifications required to be appointed as a Judge of a State High Court (e.g., holding a judicial office for 10 years or being a High Court advocate for 10 years).
- Legislative Privileges: Although not an elected Member of the Legislative Assembly (MLA), the Advocate General has the constitutional right to speak and take part in the proceedings of both Houses of the state legislature. While they enjoy all the immunities and privileges of an MLA, they strictly lack the right to vote in the legislature.
π Constitutional Bodies β’ Union Executive
Q.21) The Attorney General for India (the highest law officer in the country) is appointed by the:
Ans > C) President
- The Supreme Legal Authority: Article 76 of the Constitution provides for the office of the Attorney General for India. Appointed by the President, this individual acts as the absolute highest legal advisor to the Union Government and represents the Government of India in all complex cases before the Supreme Court.
- Tenure and Removal: Unlike independent constitutional authorities such as the CAG or the Election Commission, the Attorney General does not have a fixed tenure. They hold office strictly during the “pleasure of the President,” meaning they can be quietly removed by the President at any time without special parliamentary proceedings.
- Right of Audience: The Attorney General has a massive constitutional privilege: the right of audience in all courts located strictly within the territory of India. Additionally, they can seamlessly participate in the proceedings of both Houses of Parliament or their joint sittings, though they are explicitly barred from voting.
π Non-Constitutional Bodies β’ Statutory Bodies
Q.22) The National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) is not a constitutional body. It is a:
Ans > A) Statutory body
- Legislative Origins: The NHRC was established on October 12, 1993. Because its creation was heavily mandated by an Act of Parliamentβspecifically the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993βit is classified as a statutory body, entirely lacking the entrenched status of a constitutional body like the Election Commission.
- Role as a Watchdog: The NHRC acts as the premier institutional watchdog for human rights in India, focusing intensely on the rights to life, liberty, equality, and dignity of the individual guaranteed by the Constitution or embodied in massive international covenants enforceable by Indian courts.
- Investigatory Limitations: While the commission possesses the sweeping powers of a civil court to summon witnesses, receive evidence, and heavily investigate violations, its final rulings are purely recommendatory. It strictly lacks the power to directly punish violators or award massive monetary relief on its own authority.
π Non-Constitutional Bodies β’ NHRC
Q.23) Following the 2019 amendment, the chairperson and members of the NHRC hold office for a term of:
Ans > B) 3 years or until age 70
- Impact of the 2019 Amendment: The Protection of Human Rights (Amendment) Act, 2019 brought sweeping changes to the NHRC’s structure. Most notably, it heavily reduced the fixed tenure of both the chairperson and the members from the previous five years down to a significantly shorter three-year term.
- Expanded Eligibility for Chairperson: Originally, the 1993 Act strictly mandated that only a retired Chief Justice of India (CJI) could be appointed as the NHRC chairperson. The 2019 amendment widened this pool, now legally allowing any retired judge of the Supreme Court to hold the position.
- Reappointment Rules: Prior to the amendment, members faced strict limits on reappointment. The 2019 legislation removed the rigid five-year limitation, heavily allowing members to be reappointed for another term, provided they do not cross the absolute statutory age limit of 70 years.
π Non-Constitutional Bodies β’ RTI Act
Q.24) The Central Information Commission (CIC) was established in 2005 under the provisions of the:
Ans > B) Right to Information Act
- Statutory Foundation: The CIC is a highly prominent statutory body constituted entirely under the provisions of the landmark Right to Information (RTI) Act of 2005. It was created to heavily institutionalize transparency and accountability within the labyrinth of the massive Indian bureaucracy.
- Composition and Leadership: The commission is legally structured to include one Chief Information Commissioner and a maximum limit of up to ten Information Commissioners. They are appointed by the President based on the strict recommendation of a committee heavily comprising the PM, the Leader of Opposition, and a Union Cabinet Minister.
- Extensive Jurisdiction: The CIC serves as the absolute highest appellate authority for RTI queries. It possesses the sweeping power to inquire into complaints and heavily adjudicate appeals pertaining to all offices, financial institutions, and massive public sector undertakings under the direct control of the Central Government.
π Non-Constitutional Bodies β’ Anti-Corruption
Q.25) The Central Vigilance Commission (CVC) was set up in 1964 on the recommendations of the Committee on Prevention of Corruption, headed by:
Ans > A) K. Santhanam
- Historical Genesis: The CVC was heavily conceptualized and established in 1964 via an executive resolution. This was a direct result of the sweeping recommendations made by the Santhanam Committee on Prevention of Corruption, which identified a dire need for an apex integrity body to advise the government.
- Evolution to Statutory Status: Although it operated as an executive body for decades, the CVC was finally granted immense statutory status heavily via the enactment of the Central Vigilance Commission Act in 2003, legally fortifying its independence and investigative authority.
- Apex Integrity Institution: The CVC heavily monitors all vigilance activities taking place under the vast umbrella of the Central Government. It is legally designed to be entirely free from the control of any executive authority, heavily advising massive organizations on planning, executing, and reviewing their anti-corruption strategies.
π Non-Constitutional Bodies β’ Anti-Corruption
Q.26) The Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act, which seeks to establish anti-corruption ombudsmen, was enacted in the year:
Ans > D) 2013
- Scandinavian Inspiration: The concept of the Lokpal heavily borrows from the successful Scandinavian model of the “Ombudsman”βan independent, high-level official designated to thoroughly investigate massive complaints from citizens regarding corrupt practices by public servants.
- Sweeping Jurisdiction: The 2013 Act granted the Lokpal unprecedented investigative reach. At the central level, its jurisdiction covers current and former Prime Ministers (with some specific security safeguards), Union Ministers, Members of Parliament, and all classes (A, B, C, and D) of Central Government officers.
- Mandate for State Action: The legislation didn’t just target the Central Government. Section 63 of the Act heavily mandated every single Indian state to formally establish a parallel anti-corruption institution known as the Lokayukta within one year of the Act’s commencement, creating a massive nationwide anti-corruption net.
π Local Government β’ Panchayats
Q.27) To extend the provisions of Part IX (Panchayats) to the Scheduled Areas, the Parliament enacted the Provisions of the Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act (PESA Act) in the year:
Ans > C) 1996
- Addressing Constitutional Gaps: While the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act heavily empowered Panchayati Raj institutions across India, its provisions explicitly did not apply to the tribal-majority Scheduled Areas under the Fifth Schedule. The Parliament enacted PESA in 1996 specifically to bridge this massive governance gap.
- Empowering the Gram Sabha: Unlike regular Panchayati Raj models, PESA heavily centralizes democratic power in the Gram Sabha (the village assembly). It mandates that state legislatures endow Gram Sabhas specifically to safeguard and strictly preserve the massive cultural traditions, customs, and community resources of tribal populations.
- Control Over Resources: The PESA Act grants massive, legally binding authority to the Gram Sabhas regarding the local environment. They heavily control the ownership of minor forest produce, the enforcement of prohibition, the management of village markets, and possess the vital power to strictly prevent tribal land alienation.
π Governance β’ Minorities
Q.28) Who has the authority to notify a community as a religious minority at the national level?
Ans > C) The Central Government
- Constitutional Silence: Surprisingly, the Constitution of India frequently mentions the term “minority” (focusing heavily on religious and linguistic minorities in Articles 29 and 30) but strictly fails to provide any specific legal definition or mathematical threshold for what actively constitutes a minority.
- Statutory Power of the Centre: The legal authority to formally declare communities as minorities comes from the National Commission for Minorities Act, 1992. Section 2(c) of this Act gives massive, exclusive power directly to the Central Government to officially notify a community as a minority for targeted welfare benefits.
- The Six Notified Communities: Exercising this exact statutory power, the Central Government initially notified five communities in 1993: Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Parsis (Zoroastrians). Much later, in 2014, the Jain community was formally added, bringing the total number of nationally recognized religious minorities to exactly six.
π Elections β’ EVMs
Q.29) In the context of Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs), what does VVPAT stand for?
Ans > B) Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail
- Mechanism of Verification: The VVPAT is an independent printer system seamlessly attached to the EVM. When a vote is cast, it instantly prints a paper slip boldly displaying the candidate’s serial number, name, and electoral symbol. This slip remains visible behind a transparent glass window for exactly seven seconds.
- Ensuring Electoral Transparency: The primary function of the VVPAT is to provide massive psychological assurance and physical proof to the voter that their vote has been electronically recorded precisely as they intended, heavily reducing massive allegations of EVM tampering and machine hacking.
- Historical Implementation: The system was heavily tested and first used during the Noksen assembly constituency by-election in Nagaland back in 2013. Following massive directions from the Supreme Court, the Election Commission rapidly phased in VVPATs, ensuring their 100% usage during the massive 2019 General Elections.
π Judiciary β’ Supreme Court Judgements
Q.30) The landmark doctrine that the Parliament under Article 368 cannot alter the ‘Basic Structure’ of the Constitution was propounded by the Supreme Court in the:
Ans > B) Kesavananda Bharati case (1973)
- The Largest Bench in History: The Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala case is an absolute milestone in Indian legal history. It was heard by a massive, unprecedented bench consisting of exactly 13 Supreme Court judges, which remains the largest constitutional bench ever assembled to this day.
- The Core Doctrine: The court ruled by a razor-thin 7-6 majority that while the Parliament possesses sweeping powers under Article 368 to heavily amend any part of the Constitutionβincluding the Fundamental Rightsβit strictly cannot alter, destroy, or abrogate the “Basic Structure” or essential framework of the Constitution.
- Safeguarding Democracy: This massive doctrine effectively saved Indian democracy from potential authoritarianism. By stating that core tenets like secularism, judicial review, parliamentary democracy, and the rule of law are beyond the amending power of politicians, the judiciary established itself as the ultimate protector of the constitutional ethos.
π Quick Summary β Polity Set 98
- Parliamentary Procedures: Zero Hour starts at 12 noon, without prior notice.
- Sessions: Lame-duck session is the last session of the existing Lok Sabha.
- Sessions: Adjournment sine die means terminating a sitting indefinitely.
- Sessions: Prorogation terminates a session, done by the President.
- Sessions: Dissolution ends the life of the Lok Sabha and triggers elections.
- Parliamentary Rules: Quorum required is 1/10th of the total membership.
- Legislative Procedure: Guillotine closure puts undiscussed clauses to vote due to want of time.
- Parliamentary Procedures: A Point of Order is raised for procedural irregularities.
- Political Parties: The Whip ensures party members’ attendance and voting alignment.
- Lok Sabha: Speaker Pro Tem is a temporary Speaker to administer oaths.
- Presiding Officers: The Chairman exercises a casting vote in the event of a tie.
- Financial Committees: The three major committees are PAC, Estimates, and Public Undertakings.
- Financial Committees: The Estimates Committee is the largest, with 30 members exclusively from the Lok Sabha.
- Planning: NITI Aayog replaced the Planning Commission on Jan 1, 2015.
- Finance: The CAG is the guardian of the public purse.
- Finance: The Finance Commission recommends the distribution of tax proceeds.
- Election Commission: CEC holds office for 6 years or until age 65.
- UPSC: UPSC Chairman/members hold office for 6 years or until age 65.
- SPSC: SPSC Chairman/members hold office for 6 years or until age 62.
- State Executive: The Advocate General is appointed by the Governor.
- Union Executive: The Attorney General is appointed by the President.
- Statutory Bodies: The NHRC is a statutory body, not a constitutional one.
- NHRC: NHRC chairperson/members’ term is 3 years or until age 70 (post-2019 amendment).
- RTI Act: The Central Information Commission (CIC) was established under the RTI Act, 2005.
- Anti-Corruption: The CVC was set up based on the K. Santhanam Committee recommendations.
- Anti-Corruption: The Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act was enacted in 2013.
- Panchayats: The PESA Act was enacted in 1996 for Scheduled Areas.
- Minorities: The Central Government has the authority to notify a community as a religious minority.
- EVMs: VVPAT stands for Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail.
- Supreme Court Judgements: The ‘Basic Structure’ doctrine was propounded in the Kesavananda Bharati case (1973).
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