Indian Polity β Set 1
π
π Historical Background
Q.1) Which act designated the Governor of Bengal as the ‘Governor-General of Bengal’?
Ans > Regulating Act of 1773
- Constitutional Milestone: The Regulating Act of 1773 is considered a major constitutional milestone as it marked the very first step taken by the British Parliament to officially control and regulate the political and administrative affairs of the East India Company in India.
- Elevation of the Governor: It officially designated the existing Governor of Bengal as the ‘Governor-General of Bengal,’ making Lord Warren Hastings the very first individual to hold this immensely powerful title.
- Executive Council: To assist the newly appointed Governor-General in his administrative and political decisions, the act meticulously created an Executive Council consisting of four dedicated members.
- Subordination of Presidencies: It deeply centralized power by making the previously independent presidencies of Bombay and Madras completely subordinate to the Bengal presidency, ending their separate decision-making authority.
- Supreme Court Establishment: Crucially, the act provided for the formal establishment of a Supreme Court at Calcutta in 1774, which consisted of one Chief Justice (Sir Elijah Impey) and three other judges to handle civil and criminal legal matters.
- Anti-Corruption Measures: It strictly prohibited any servants of the East India Company from engaging in private trade, accepting presents, or taking bribes from the local Indian population, aiming to curb rampant corruption.
π Historical Background
Q.2) Under which act was a system of double government established by creating a Board of Control to manage political affairs?
Ans > Pitt’s India Act of 1784
- Rectifying Previous Defects: Pitt’s India Act of 1784 was primarily enacted by the British Parliament to rectify the glaring administrative defects and loopholes found in the earlier Regulating Act of 1773.
- Separation of Functions: For the first time, it clearly distinguished between the commercial functions and the political/administrative functions of the East India Company, creating a structured approach to governance.
- The Double Government: It allowed the existing Court of Directors to continue managing the commercial affairs of the Company, but it created a powerful new body called the ‘Board of Control’ (consisting of six members) exclusively to manage political affairs, thus establishing the famous system of ‘Double Government’.
- Supervisory Powers: The newly formed Board of Control was heavily empowered to supervise, direct, and firmly control all operations relating to the civil, military, and revenue governance of the British territorial possessions in India.
- British Possessions: This act holds immense historical significance because it was the first time that the Company’s territories in the subcontinent were officially referred to as ‘British possessions in India’.
- Supreme British Control: Ultimately, the act ensured that the British Government was granted supreme, overriding control over the Companyβs complex affairs and its sprawling administrative machinery in India.
π Historical Background
Q.3) Who was the first Governor-General of India?
Ans > Lord William Bentick
- Ultimate Centralization: The Charter Act of 1833 is historically recognized as the final and most decisive step towards the absolute centralization of power in British India, fundamentally altering the administrative landscape.
- Title Elevation: Under this act, the designation of the Governor-General of Bengal was officially changed and elevated to the ‘Governor-General of India’. Lord William Bentinck had the distinct honor of becoming the first Governor-General of India.
- Exclusive Legislative Powers: The act vested the newly created Governor-General of India with exclusive, sweeping legislative powers for the entirety of British India, consolidating law-making authority in one office.
- Depriving Provinces: Consequently, it completely deprived the Governors of the Bombay and Madras presidencies of their historical legislative powers, fully subordinating them to the central authority in Calcutta.
- End of Commercial Body: It officially ended the activities of the East India Company as a commercial trading body, explicitly transforming it into a purely administrative agency ruling on behalf of the British Crown.
- Attempt at Open Competition: Interestingly, the act made a bold attempt to introduce a system of open competition for the selection of civil servants, but this was heavily opposed and subsequently negated by the powerful Court of Directors.
π Historical Background
Q.4) Which act abolished the East India Company and transferred the powers of government to the British Crown?
Ans > Government of India Act of 1858
- Post-Revolt Legislation: The Government of India Act of 1858 was swiftly enacted in the direct aftermath of the devastating Revolt of 1857, which the British referred to as the Sepoy Mutiny, and Indians recognize as the First War of Independence.
- Act for Good Government: Officially titled the ‘Act for the Good Government of India’, its primary objective was to drastically overhaul the administrative machinery to prevent future widespread rebellions.
- End of Company Rule: It completely abolished the East India Company, formally stripping it of all its remaining authority, and directly transferred the powers of government, vast territories, and all revenues to the British Crown.
- The Viceroy of India: It changed the designation of the Governor-General of India to the ‘Viceroy of India’. The Viceroy became the direct, personal representative of the British Crown in India, with Lord Canning serving as the first Viceroy.
- Abolishing Double Government: It formally ended the complex and inefficient system of ‘double government’ that had been introduced by Pitt’s India Act by abolishing both the Board of Control and the Court of Directors.
- Secretary of State: It created a highly powerful new office, the Secretary of State for India, who was a member of the British cabinet and was assisted by a 15-member advisory body known as the Council of India.
π Historical Background
Q.5) The Indian Councils Act of 1909 is also known as:
Ans > Morley-Minto Reforms
- Namesake Origins: The Indian Councils Act of 1909 is almost universally referred to in history books as the Morley-Minto Reforms. It was named after Lord Morley, who was the then Secretary of State for India, and Lord Minto, the serving Viceroy of India.
- Expanding Legislative Councils: This highly significant act considerably increased the size of the legislative councils, both at the Central and Provincial levels. For instance, the number of members in the Central Legislative Council was raised drastically from 16 to 60.
- Official vs. Non-Official Majority: While it strictly retained an official (British) majority in the Central Legislative Council, it crucially allowed the provincial legislative councils to have a non-official majority for the first time.
- Enhanced Deliberative Functions: It greatly enlarged the deliberative functions of the legislative councils at both levels, allowing members to boldly ask supplementary questions and move formal resolutions on the budget.
- Executive Council Association: It provided, for the very first time, the association of Indians with the highly exclusive executive councils of the Viceroy and Governors, breaking a long-standing racial barrier.
- Communal Representation: Most controversially, it introduced a system of communal representation specifically for Muslims by accepting the concept of a ‘separate electorate’, legally legalizing communalism and earning Lord Minto the title of ‘Father of Communal Electorate’.
π Historical Background
Q.6) Who became the first Indian to join the Viceroy’s executive council?
Ans > Satyendra Prasad Sinha
- Breaking the Racial Barrier: Enacted under the sweeping provisions of the Indian Councils Act of 1909 (Morley-Minto Reforms), Satyendra Prasad Sinha became the very first Indian to join the highly exclusive Viceroy’s Executive Council.
- Appointed as Law Member: Sinha did not join in a minor capacity; he was specifically and strategically appointed as the Law Member of the council, a position of immense legal authority and administrative influence.
- Overcoming Intense Opposition: His historic appointment faced severe, deeply entrenched racial opposition from conservative British officials serving in India, but it was vigorously championed and pushed through by Lord Morley, the Secretary of State.
- Elevation to Peerage: Recognizing his exceptional legal acumen and service to the Crown, he was later uniquely elevated to the British peerage as Baron Sinha of Raipur, becoming the only Indian to hold such a title.
- Broad Political Career: Beyond the Executive Council, Lord Sinha also served with distinction as the Under-Secretary of State for India and later became the Governor of the Province of Bihar and Orissa.
- Paving the Way: His groundbreaking entry into the core executive machinery definitively paved the way for future Indian representation in core executive functions, finally moving Indian participation beyond mere advisory or legislative roles.
π Historical Background
Q.7) Which act introduced, for the first time, bicameralism and direct elections in the country?
Ans > Government of India Act of 1919
- The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms: The Government of India Act of 1919 is historically documented as the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, named after Edwin Montagu (Secretary of State for India) and Lord Chelmsford (Viceroy of India).
- Introduction of Bicameralism: For the very first time in Indian constitutional history, the act replaced the single-chamber Indian Legislative Council with a bicameral legislature consisting of an Upper House (Council of State) and a Lower House (Legislative Assembly).
- Direct Elections Initiated: Alongside bicameralism, the act officially introduced the principle of direct elections in the country. The majority of members in both the newly created houses were to be chosen through this direct electoral process.
- Highly Restricted Franchise: However, the direct elections were far from universal. The franchise was heavily restricted and granted only to a tiny fraction of the population based on strict criteria involving property ownership, tax payments, or high educational qualifications.
- System of Dyarchy: At the provincial level, it introduced the complex system of ‘Dyarchy’, violently splitting provincial subjects into ‘transferred’ subjects (managed by ministers) and ‘reserved’ subjects (managed directly by the Governor).
- Expansion of Communalism: Further dividing Indian society, it extended the deeply controversial principle of communal representation by providing separate, exclusive electorates for Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, and Europeans.
π Historical Background
Q.8) In which year was the Simon Commission appointed?
Ans > 1927
- Premature Appointment: The British Government unexpectedly announced the appointment of the Simon Commission in November 1927, exactly two years ahead of the schedule strictly mandated by the Government of India Act of 1919.
- Statutory Purpose: Formally known as the Indian Statutory Commission, it was a seven-member body chaired by Sir John Simon, specifically tasked to deeply investigate and report on the condition of India under its new constitutional framework.
- All-White Commission: The most glaring and deeply offensive aspect of the commission was that all seven of its members were British politicians; there was not a single Indian representative included to decide India’s political future.
- Universal Boycott: Due to this blatant exclusion and racial insult, the commission was brutally and universally boycotted by all major Indian political parties, including the Congress and the Muslim League, greeted everywhere with black flags and “Simon Go Back” slogans.
- Major Recommendations: Despite the fierce opposition, the commission submitted its detailed report in 1930. It strongly recommended the total abolition of dyarchy, the vast extension of responsible government in provinces, and the establishment of an all-India federation.
- Paving the Way for 1935: The contentious findings of the Simon Commission ultimately led the British Government to convene the three Round Table Conferences in London, the outcomes of which heavily shaped the subsequent Government of India Act of 1935.
π Historical Background
Q.9) The Government of India Act of 1935 divided the powers between the Centre and units into how many lists?
Ans > Three
- A Mammoth Document: The Government of India Act of 1935 was an incredibly lengthy, detailed, and complex constitutional document. It originally consisted of exactly 321 intricately detailed Sections and 10 comprehensive Schedules.
- Division into Three Lists: To manage a vast subcontinent, the Act systematically divided legislative powers between the strong Centre and the provincial units strictly in terms of three exhaustive lists, setting a clear precedent for modern India.
- The Federal List: The first list was the Federal List, specifically designed for the Centre, which originally contained 59 items of supreme national importance, including external affairs, defense, and currency.
- The Provincial List: The second was the Provincial List, carefully curated for the provincial governments, containing 54 items of local administrative importance, such as public order, local government, and public health.
- The Concurrent List: The third was the Concurrent List, meant for both the Centre and the provinces to legislate upon, containing 36 items like criminal law, marriage, and bankruptcy procedures.
- Residuary Powers: Any subjects that were completely omitted from these three comprehensive lists were categorized as ‘residuary powers’, and the exclusive authority to legislate on them was uniquely vested in the Viceroy, not the legislature.
π Making of the Constitution
Q.10) Who was the first to put forward the idea of a Constituent Assembly for India in 1934?
Ans > M.N. Roy
- The Pioneer’s Vision: The highly revolutionary idea of a dedicated Constituent Assembly to frame a constitution for India was first officially put forward in the year 1934 by Manabendra Nath (M.N.) Roy.
- Background of M.N. Roy: M.N. Roy was a brilliant political theorist, a globally recognized pioneer of the communist movement in India, and an aggressive advocate of radical, grassroots democratism who firmly believed Indians must dictate their own political destiny.
- Official Congress Demand: Heavily inspired by Roy’s visionary proposal, the Indian National Congress (INC), for the very first time in 1935, officially demanded the formation of a Constituent Assembly to frame the Constitution of a free India.
- Nehru’s Declaration: Taking the demand further, in 1938, Jawaharlal Nehru boldly declared on behalf of the INC that the constitution of free India must be framed entirely without any outside interference, strictly by an assembly elected on the basis of adult franchise.
- The August Offer (1940): The persistent, unyielding demand for a Constituent Assembly was finally accepted in principle by the British Government during the crisis of World War II, through a historic declaration known as the ‘August Offer’ of 1940.
- Cripps Proposal: Later in 1942, Sir Stafford Cripps came to India with a draft proposal confirming the framing of an independent constitution to be adopted immediately after World War II, cementing Roy’s original 1934 vision into inevitable reality.
π Making of the Constitution
Q.11) What was the total strength of the Constituent Assembly originally formulated under the Cabinet Mission Plan?
Ans > 389
- The Cabinet Mission Arrival: The Constituent Assembly was meticulously constituted in November 1946 strictly under the scheme formulated by the Cabinet Mission Plan, which comprised Lord Pethick-Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps, and A.V. Alexander.
- Total Authorized Strength: The Cabinet Mission explicitly rejected the Muslim League’s intense demand for two separate constituent assemblies and instead fixed the total authorized strength of a single, unified Constituent Assembly at exactly 389 members.
- Distribution of Seats: Out of this massive total of 389 seats, a majority of 296 seats were systematically allotted to British India, while the remaining 93 seats were reserved exclusively for the numerous Princely States scattered across the subcontinent.
- British India Allocation: Digging deeper into the 296 seats assigned to British India, 292 members were to be drawn directly from the eleven governors’ provinces, and exactly 4 members were to come from the four distinct chief commissioners’ provinces.
- Population-Based Allotment: To ensure fairness, seats were allocated to each province and princely state strictly in proportion to their respective populations, maintaining a rough ratio of one allocated seat for every million people in the region.
- Community Division: Furthermore, the seats specifically allocated to each British province were fiercely divided among the three principal recognized communitiesβMuslims, Sikhs, and General (encompassing all others)βdirectly in proportion to their specific population figures.
π Making of the Constitution
Q.12) Who was elected as the temporary President of the Constituent Assembly during its first meeting?
Ans > Dr. Sachchidananda Sinha
- The Historic First Meeting: The Constituent Assembly of India held its highly anticipated, historic first meeting in the Constitution Hall (now the Central Hall of Parliament) in New Delhi on the morning of December 9, 1946.
- The Muslim League Boycott: This inaugural meeting occurred under a cloud of deep political tension, as it was aggressively boycotted by the Muslim League, who firmly insisted on the partition of the country and a separate state of Pakistan, resulting in only 211 members attending.
- Following French Tradition: To properly conduct the initial proceedings of the newly formed body, the Assembly decided to strictly follow established French parliamentary practice by electing its oldest attending member to serve as the temporary (provisional) President.
- Dr. Sinha’s Election: Given his advanced age and immense respect as a prominent lawyer, journalist, and veteran parliamentarian, Dr. Sachchidananda Sinha was unanimously chosen and elected to bear this profound honor as the temporary President.
- Transition to Permanent Leadership: Dr. Sinha’s tenure was brief but crucial. Just two days later, on December 11, 1946, the Assembly formally elected Dr. Rajendra Prasad, a towering figure in the freedom struggle, as the permanent President of the Constituent Assembly.
- Vice-Presidential Elections: Concurrently, to assist the President, the Assembly elected two distinct Vice-Presidents: H.C. Mukherjee and V.T. Krishnamachari, ensuring robust leadership for the monumental task of drafting the constitution.
π Making of the Constitution
Q.13) On which date did Jawaharlal Nehru move the historic ‘Objectives Resolution’ in the Assembly?
Ans > December 13, 1946
- The Visionary Document: Jawaharlal Nehru, with immense foresight, moved the deeply historic and philosophically profound ‘Objectives Resolution’ in the Constituent Assembly on December 13, 1946, just days after the Assembly first convened.
- Laying the Foundation: This critical resolution was not a mere speech; it meticulously laid down the fundamental philosophy, the core guiding principles, and the structural constitutional framework upon which the entire Indian republic was to be built.
- Proclaiming a Republic: The resolution officially proclaimed the Assembly’s firm and solemn resolve to declare India as an Independent, Sovereign, and democratic Republic, entirely free from British dominion status.
- Guaranteeing Core Rights: It emphatically guaranteed to all the people of India profound justice (social, economic, and political), equality of status and opportunity, and absolute freedom of thought, expression, belief, faith, and worship.
- Safeguards for the Vulnerable: Recognizing India’s complex social fabric, the resolution explicitly promised that adequate and robust safeguards would be provided for all minorities, backward and tribal areas, and the historically depressed classes.
- Unanimous Adoption & Legacy: After extensive debate, this monumental resolution was unanimously adopted by the Assembly on January 22, 1947. Its heavily modified, refined version serves today as the magnificent Preamble of the present Indian Constitution.
π Making of the Constitution
Q.14) The Constituent Assembly adopted the national flag on:
Ans > July 22, 1947
- The Ad-hoc Committee: Recognizing the immediate need for a sovereign symbol before independence, the Constituent Assembly swiftly formed an ad-hoc committee dedicated specifically to finalizing the National Flag, which was headed by Dr. Rajendra Prasad.
- Date of Adoption: Following the committee’s strict recommendations, the Constituent Assembly officially and unanimously adopted the design of the national flag on July 22, 1947, merely weeks before the formal declaration of India’s independence from British rule.
- Design Specifications: The officially adopted flag is a highly specific horizontal tricolor. It features deep saffron (kesari) at the absolute top, pristine white in the middle, and dark green at the bottom, all maintained in strictly equal proportions.
- The Ratio Rule: To maintain visual uniformity across all official displays, the constitutional mandate dictates that the exact ratio of the width of the flag to its length must always be precisely 2:3.
- The Ashoka Chakra: Positioned perfectly in the center of the white band is a navy-blue wheel known as the Chakra. It possesses exactly 24 spokes, directly representing the historic Dharma Chakra (Wheel of Law) of Emperor Ashoka from the Sarnath Lion Capital.
- Evolution of the Design: The final, approved design was heavily inspired by and based upon the original Swaraj flag, which was conceptually designed years earlier by the freedom fighter Pingali Venkayya.
π Making of the Constitution
Q.15) Who was the Chairman of the Drafting Committee?
Ans > Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
- The Most Crucial Committee: While the Constituent Assembly formed numerous committees to tackle different aspects of governance, the Drafting Committee, officially set up on August 29, 1947, was undeniably the most crucial and heavily burdened of them all.
- The Chairman’s Role: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, possessing unmatched legal brilliance and a profound understanding of global constitutions, was elected as the Chairman of this critical seven-member committee, tasked with synthesizing all reports into a cohesive draft.
- The Seven Members: The committee consisted of formidable legal minds: Dr. Ambedkar, N. Gopalaswamy Ayyangar, Alladi Krishnaswamy Ayyar, Dr. K.M. Munshi, Syed Mohammad Saadullah, N. Madhava Rau (who replaced the ailing B.L. Mitter), and T.T. Krishnamachari (who replaced the deceased D.P. Khaitan).
- The First Draft: After months of relentless work, the Drafting Committee successfully published the very first Draft of the Constitution of India in February 1948, immediately releasing it to the public for intense scrutiny.
- Public Feedback Window: Demonstrating immense democratic spirit, the people of India were granted a massive eight-month window to deeply discuss the draft, critique its provisions, and formally propose amendments to the committee.
- The Final Refinement: In light of the massive public comments, sharp criticisms, and thousands of proposed suggestions, the committee published a revised second draft in October 1948. In total, the Drafting Committee sat for exactly 141 days to prepare the historic text.
π Making of the Constitution
Q.16) How many days did the Constituent Assembly take to consider the Draft Constitution?
Ans > 114 days
- The First Reading: The formal consideration process began when Dr. B.R. Ambedkar introduced the final, refined draft of the Constitution in the Assembly on November 4, 1948, initiating the first general reading and broad discussion.
- Clause-by-Clause Scrutiny: The most grueling phase, the second reading, started on November 15, 1948. This involved a meticulous, highly debated, clause-by-clause consideration of the entire document, which dragged on for nearly a year until October 17, 1949.
- Thousands of Amendments: During this incredibly rigorous and democratic phase of clause-by-clause scrutiny, as many as 7,653 individual amendments were formally proposed by various members, of which 2,473 were actually moved, vigorously discussed, and voted upon in the Assembly.
- The Final Reading: After resolving thousands of disputes and textual changes, the third and final reading of the heavily amended draft commenced on November 14, 1949, leading towards the final vote.
- The Total Lifespan: Looking at the macro picture, the Constituent Assembly operated for a massive total duration spanning exactly 2 years, 11 months, and 18 days to complete the entire constitution-making process.
- Dedicated Consideration Time: However, out of this total lifespan, exactly 114 specific working days were spent purely and exclusively on considering, debating, and amending the text of the Draft Constitution on the assembly floor.
π Making of the Constitution
Q.17) Out of the total 299 members of the Assembly, how many were present on November 26, 1949, to sign the Constitution?
Ans > 284
- Impact of Partition: Originally, the Constituent Assembly was planned for 389 members, but following the tragic partition of India and the withdrawal of Muslim League members from Pakistani territories, the total strength of the Assembly was officially reduced to 299.
- The Historic Motion: On November 26, 1949, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar moved the final historic motion declaring “that the Constitution as settled by the Assembly be passed,” signaling the end of the drafting era.
- The Physical Signatories: On that monumental day, out of the total revised strength of 299 members, exactly 284 members were physically present in the assembly hall to append their physical signatures to the finalized constitutional document.
- The Adopted Structure: The Constitution, as it was officially adopted and signed on November 26, 1949, was a massive document containing a profound Preamble, exactly 395 Articles, and 8 comprehensive Schedules.
- Reading the Preamble: It is a notable historical fact that the Preamble of the Constitution was enacted and signed only after the entire body of the Constitution was already finalized, ensuring it perfectly reflected the text it introduced.
- Immediate Enforcement: While the bulk of the Constitution commenced on January 26, 1950, crucial provisions relating to citizenship, elections, the provisional parliament, and temporary transitional provisions came into immediate legal force on the very day of signing: November 26, 1949.
π Making of the Constitution
Q.18) Who is recognised as the ‘Father of the Constitution of India’?
Ans > Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
- The Chief Architect: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, possessing an unparalleled grasp of jurisprudence and economics, served as the Chairman of the Drafting Committee. Because of his monumental contribution, he is universally and rightfully recognized as the ‘Father of the Constitution of India’ and its ‘Chief Architect’.
- Masterful Piloting: He was deeply praised for successfully, logically, and forcefully piloting the complex Draft Constitution through the Assembly, answering hundreds of difficult objections and systematically explaining the rationale behind every controversial clause.
- The ‘Modern Manu’: Given his immense, revolutionary role in codifying new, egalitarian laws that aggressively promoted social justice, abolished untouchability, and ensured legal equality, historians and scholars frequently refer to him as the ‘Modern Manu’.
- Advocate for a Strong Center: Throughout the intense assembly debates, Dr. Ambedkar was a fierce, unwavering advocate for a strong, highly centralized federal structure, arguing it was absolutely necessary to prevent the historical fragmentation of the nation and ensure unity.
- Global Constitutional Knowledge: His profound, encyclopedic understanding of the working constitutions of major democracies worldwide (like the US, UK, Ireland, and Canada) heavily influenced the deeply comprehensive, heavily borrowed, yet uniquely tailored nature of the Indian Constitution.
- Champion of the Depressed Classes: While crafting the legal framework of the state, he relentlessly ensured that the final document contained ironclad, constitutional safeguards, reservations, and fundamental rights explicitly protecting the historically oppressed and depressed classes of India.
π Making of the Constitution
Q.19) Which symbol (seal) was adopted by the Constituent Assembly?
Ans > Elephant
- The Official Assembly Seal: To authenticate its massive volume of official documents, correspondence, and drafts during its three-year tenure, the Constituent Assembly officially adopted the elephant as its symbolic seal.
- Metaphor for Gigantic Size: The choice of the elephant was not arbitrary; it was a deliberate metaphor intended to perfectly represent the gigantic size, immense diversity, and unprecedented, sweeping scope of the Indian Constitution being drafted.
- The Longest Written Constitution: True to its elephantine symbol, the final document produced by the Assembly officially became the lengthiest, most detailed written constitution of any sovereign, independent country in the entire world.
- Geographical and Historical Drivers: The immense, bulky size of the constitution was directly attributed to the vast geographical diversity of the Indian subcontinent, and the heavy reliance on the already voluminous Government of India Act of 1935 as a primary structural template.
- Inclusion of Administrative Details: Unlike the American Constitution, which only outlines broad principles, the Indian Constitution became massive because the drafters chose to include not just fundamental rights, but highly detailed, intricate administrative provisions and guidelines.
- A Single Document for All: The elephant symbol also represented the sheer weight of a document that had to uniquely serve as a single, comprehensive constitution for both the powerful Centre and all the diverse states (unlike the US, where states have separate constitutions).
π Making of the Constitution
Q.20) Who was the calligrapher of the English version of the original Indian Constitution?
Ans > Prem Behari Narain Raizada
- The Master Calligrapher: Prem Behari Narain Raizada was a highly skilled, master calligrapher who was specifically chosen and entrusted by Jawaharlal Nehru with the monumental task of handwriting the original Constitution of India.
- The Flowing Italic Style: Rejecting modern printing presses, Raizada meticulously penned the entire, massive English version of the original constitutional document using a beautiful, highly ornate, and flowing italic calligraphy style.
- A Labor of Love: When asked regarding his payment for this colossal effort, Raizada famously did not charge a single rupee as a fee. His only humble request was permission to sign his name on the bottom of every single page, and his grandfather’s name on the final page.
- No Printing or Typing: It is a remarkable historical fact that the original, legally binding documents of the Indian Constitution were not typed on a typewriter or printed; they were entirely handwritten with specialized nibs and ink.
- Illumination by Shantiniketan Artists: While Raizada handled the text, the blank borders and pages were magnificently illuminated, decorated, and beautified by renowned artists hailing from Shantiniketan, most notably including Nand Lal Bose and Beohar Rammanohar Sinha.
- Preservation in Parliament: Today, these original, beautifully handwritten and heavily decorated copies of the Constitution are carefully preserved inside special, hermetically sealed, helium-filled glass cases located deep within the Library of the Parliament of India.
π Making of the Constitution
Q.21) Which Constitutional Amendment Act made a provision for an authoritative text of the Constitution in the Hindi language?
Ans > 58th Amendment Act of 1987
- The Initial Omission: Originally, when adopted in 1949, the Constitution of India was drafted in English and glaringly did not contain any formal, legal provision for an authoritative, legally binding text in the Hindi language.
- The Rectifying Amendment: To correct this anomaly and elevate the status of the national language in legal contexts, the 58th Constitutional Amendment Act of 1987 was passed, inserting a brand new Article 394-A squarely into Part XXII of the Constitution.
- Presidential Empowerment: This new article explicitly empowered the President of India to cause the publication of a definitive translation of the Constitution in Hindi, making sure it incorporated all the subsequent constitutional amendments passed up to that point.
- Equal Legal Authority: The most crucial aspect of this amendment was that it granted this translated Hindi text the exact same legal meaning, validity, and supreme authority as the original English text used by the Supreme Court.
- Terminological Conformity: The amendment also strictly permitted any necessary textual modifications to ensure the Hindi translation perfectly brought it in conformity with the specific language, style, and legal terminology adopted in the authoritative texts of Central Acts in Hindi.
- Clarity for Hindi Regions: Ultimately, this vital amendment ensured absolute legal clarity and accessibility for millions of citizens, lawyers, and lower courts operating primarily in the vast Hindi-speaking regions of the country.
π Making of the Constitution
Q.22) Which constitutional expert called the Constituent Assembly a “one-party body in an essentially one-party country”?
Ans > Granville Austin
- The Expert Observer: Granville Austin, an incredibly eminent American historian and a globally recognized leading authority on the drafting of the Indian Constitution, made this highly famous and critical observation regarding the Assembly’s makeup.
- The Core Criticism: He famously stated that the Constituent Assembly was, for all practical purposes, a “one-party body in an essentially one-party country,” highlighting a perceived lack of intense political opposition during the drafting process.
- The Equation of Congress and India: Expanding on this critique in his renowned writings, Austin further elaborated with the blunt quote that “The Assembly was the Congress and the Congress was India,” illustrating the party’s absolute hegemony.
- The Numerical Reality: This criticism was heavily grounded in the numerical reality of the Assembly following the Muslim League’s boycott and subsequent withdrawal; out of the 296 seats assigned to British India, the Indian National Congress won a massive 208 seats.
- Hegemony Post-Partition: After the partition of the subcontinent was finalized, the dominance of the Congress party inside the remaining Assembly became even more pronounced, as almost all major opposition figures either left for Pakistan or held negligible sway.
- Internal Diversity as a Defense: Despite Austin’s accurate numerical criticism regarding party dominance, defenders of the Assembly frequently point out that the Congress itself was a ‘broad church’, deliberately ensuring diversity by aggressively nominating non-party legal experts, minority leaders, and varied ideological voices to the Assembly.
π Historical Background
Q.23) Under the Government of India Act of 1919, the dual scheme of governance in provinces was known as:
Ans > Dyarchy
- Etymology of the Term: The unique administrative term ‘dyarchy’ is directly derived from the ancient Greek word ‘di-arche’, which translates literally to mean ‘double rule’ or a government divided by two independent authorities.
- Provincial Implementation: The Government of India Act 1919 (Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms) experimentally introduced this highly complex dual scheme of governance exclusively at the provincial level, not at the central government level.
- Splitting the Subjects: To execute dyarchy, the act rigidly split all provincial administrative subjects into two distinct and separate lists: ‘Transferred subjects’ and ‘Reserved subjects’.
- The Transferred Subjects: The Transferred subjects (which included less critical areas like education, public health, local government, and agriculture) were to be administered by the Governor, acting with the aid of Indian ministers who were directly responsible to the legislative council.
- The Reserved Subjects: Conversely, the highly critical Reserved subjects (such as police, justice, land revenue, and finance) were administered directly by the Governor and his hand-picked executive council, operating without any accountability or responsibility to the legislature.
- A Failed Experiment: Historically, the system of dyarchy proved to be largely unsuccessful and highly frustrating for Indian ministers, primarily due to inherent constitutional flaws, a severe lack of financial funding for transferred subjects, and constant friction with the powerful executive council.
π Historical Background
Q.24) The Poona Pact was an agreement between the leaders of the Congress and which group?
Ans > Depressed Classes
- The Communal Award Catalyst: The crisis began in August 1932 when the British Prime Minister, Ramsay MacDonald, controversially announced the ‘Communal Award’, which officially extended the highly divisive scheme of separate electorates to the Depressed Classes (Dalits).
- Gandhi’s Extreme Reaction: Mahatma Gandhi fiercely opposed this British move, deeply viewing it as a sinister imperial attempt to permanently divide Hindu society and weaken the national movement; in protest, he undertook a fast unto death in Yerwada Jail in Poona.
- Intense Political Negotiations: Gandhi’s deteriorating health sparked massive national panic, leading to intense, high-pressure political negotiations between orthodox Hindu leaders of the Congress and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, who was aggressively representing the political rights of the Depressed Classes.
- Breaking the Deadlock: To save Gandhi’s life and break the deadly political deadlock, the historic Poona Pact was finally agreed upon and signed in September 1932 by Dr. Ambedkar on behalf of the Depressed Classes and Madan Mohan Malaviya on behalf of upper-caste Hindus.
- Abandoning Separate Electorates: The core compromise of the pact was that it formally abandoned the British idea of separate electorates for the Depressed Classes, keeping them integrated within the general Hindu electoral fold.
- Securing Reserved Seats: In exchange for giving up separate electorates, the pact retained the system of joint electorates but significantly and legally increased the number of reserved seats guaranteed for the Depressed Classes in both the provincial and central legislative councils.
π Historical Background
Q.25) Which plan was put forth on June 3, 1947, for the partition of India?
Ans > Mountbatten Plan
- The Final Viceroy’s Mandate: Lord Mountbatten arrived in India to replace Lord Wavell as Viceroy in early 1947, carrying a strict, urgent mandate from the British government to execute a speedy, final transfer of power to Indian hands.
- The June 3 Declaration: After realizing through intense negotiations that maintaining a united India was practically impossible due to horrific, escalating communal violence, he publicly proposed his decisive partition plan on June 3, 1947, hence known as the June 3 Plan or Mountbatten Plan.
- Bipartisan Acceptance: Unlike previous failed proposals, the Mountbatten Plan was formally and reluctantly accepted by all major stakeholders: the Indian National Congress, the All-India Muslim League, and the representatives of the Sikh community in Punjab.
- Creating Two Dominions: The fundamental, unalterable core of the plan provided for the immediate partition of British India into two completely independent and sovereign dominions: India and Pakistan.
- The Boundary Commissions: To practically execute this massive territorial division, the plan established powerful Boundary Commissions (chaired by the British lawyer Sir Cyril Radcliffe) specifically tasked to demarcate the incredibly complex and volatile borders of Bengal and Punjab.
- Rapid Legislative Action: The radical provisions and timelines of the Mountbatten Plan were immediately drafted into formal British legislation, which was swiftly passed by the UK Parliament as the Indian Independence Act of 1947, sealing the fate of the subcontinent.
π Interim Government
Q.26) Who was the first Prime Minister of independent India?
Ans > Jawaharlal Nehru
- The Midnight Hour: Jawaharlal Nehru was officially sworn in as the very first Prime Minister of an independent, sovereign India at the stroke of midnight on August 15, 1947, amidst massive nationwide celebrations.
- Administering the Oath: In a unique historical transition, he took his solemn oath of office and secrecy directly from Lord Mountbatten, whom the Indian leadership had requested to continue briefly as the first Governor-General of the new Dominion of India.
- Experience in the Interim: Nehru was highly prepared for the role, having already headed the critical Interim Government (formed in 1946 under the Cabinet Mission) as the Vice-President of the Viceroy’s Executive Council, effectively acting as a de facto Prime Minister.
- Commanding Key Portfolios: Beyond his role as Prime Minister, Nehru wielded immense influence by holding key, highly sensitive portfolios in the first cabinet, most notably including External Affairs, Commonwealth Relations, and Scientific Research.
- The Tryst with Destiny: He cemented his legacy on the eve of independence by delivering the famous, poetically brilliant “Tryst with Destiny” speech to the Constituent Assembly, articulating the hopes and challenges of the newly freed nation.
- An Unmatched Tenure: Nehru dominated Indian politics for nearly two decades, holding the distinct record for being the longest-serving Prime Minister of India, continuously holding office from 1947 until his passing in 1964.
π First Cabinet
Q.27) Who held the portfolio of Home, Information & Broadcasting in the first Cabinet of Free India (1947)?
Ans > Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
- The Deputy Prime Minister: In the highly critical, foundational first Cabinet of free India formed immediately in 1947, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel served as the indispensable Deputy Prime Minister, acting as the primary stabilizing force alongside Nehru.
- Crucial Core Portfolios: Reflecting his immense organizational capability, he was given the heaviest and most crucial portfolios in a newly partitioned country: the Ministry of Home Affairs, Information and Broadcasting, and the newly created Ministry of States.
- The Challenge of Integration: As the Minister of States, Patel faced the terrifying challenge of a deeply fractured subcontinent; he played a monumental and historically unmatched role in the peaceful political integration of over 560 semi-independent princely states into the Indian Union.
- Diplomacy and Force: Through a brilliant, relentless mix of persuasive diplomacy (offering privy purses), administrative pressure, and the calculated threat of military action (most notably Operation Polo in Hyderabad and actions in Junagadh), he unified the country’s borders.
- The Iron Man’s Legacy: Because of his uncompromising resolve, physical toughness, and strategic brilliance in preventing the balkanization of India post-independence, he is universally and affectionately celebrated as the “Iron Man of India”.
- The Indian Bismarck: Due to his singular achievement of forging a unified nation-state from hundreds of disparate kingdoms and territories, historians frequently equate his legacy to that of Otto von Bismarck, rightfully calling him the “Bismarck of India.”
π Making of the Constitution
Q.28) Who was the Chairman of the Union Powers Committee in the Constituent Assembly?
Ans > Jawaharlal Nehru
- Committee Structure: To efficiently handle the incredibly vast and complex task of drafting a constitution for a subcontinent, the Constituent Assembly appointed a total of 22 specialized committees (8 major committees and several minor ones).
- Nehru’s Dominant Role: Jawaharlal Nehru was a heavily dominant intellectual figure within the Assembly, and his influence was solidified by the fact that he was elected to chair three of the most important major committees.
- The Union Powers Committee: He chaired the critical Union Powers Committee, which was strictly tasked with drafting and finalizing the specific list of constitutional powers that would be exclusively vested in the central federal government.
- The Union Constitution Committee: Furthermore, he chaired the Union Constitution Committee, a body responsible for laying down the fundamental, overarching structural framework of the federal government and its relationship with the states.
- The States Committee: Additionally, he headed the highly sensitive States Committee (also known as the Committee for Negotiating with States), which was tasked to politically negotiate the exact terms of constitutional accession with the rulers of the princely states.
- Bias Towards a Strong Centre: Nehru’s powerful leadership and visionary presence in these three specific committees strongly and deliberately influenced the final Constitutionβs heavy bias towards a strong, centralized union over extensive provincial autonomy, aiming to prevent future secession.
π Making of the Constitution
Q.29) The total expenditure incurred on making the Constitution amounted to:
Ans > 64 lakh
- A Mammoth Logistical Exercise: The making of the Indian Constitution was not just a legal task; it was a mammoth logistical, intellectual, and financial exercise that spanned nearly three intense years of continuous effort by hundreds of individuals.
- Global Constitutional Study: Before even drafting the document, the experts of the Constituent Assembly extensively traveled and meticulously studied the working constitutional frameworks of approximately 60 different democratic countries to borrow the best practices.
- Extensive Assembly Sessions: The Assembly held 11 extensive, formal sessions and met for a total of 165 working days (out of which 114 days were spent purely debating the draft), requiring massive daily operational funding.
- Administrative Overheads: The enormous administrative costs included the printing of multiple iterations of massive drafts, maintaining the grand assembly hall in Delhi, and providing extensive, highly skilled translation services for members from diverse linguistic backgrounds.
- Member Allowances: Furthermore, daily allowances, travel expenses, and basic accommodations had to be consistently provided for the 299 active members of the Assembly who relocated to Delhi for the duration of the drafting process.
- The Final Bill: When accounting for all these complex logistical operations, the total estimated financial cost incurred on the entire process of making the Constitution was nearly βΉ64 lakh, a highly substantial and massive sum for a newly independent, economically strained nation in 1949.
π Historical Background
Q.30) Which Act ended the system of double Government by abolishing the Board of Control and Court of Directors?
Ans > Government of India Act of 1858
- The Origins of the Dual System: The deeply complex system of ‘Double Government’ was initially conceptualized and established by Pitt’s India Act way back in 1784 to balance corporate greed with parliamentary oversight.
- Two Rival Bodies: This system divided power between the ‘Court of Directors’ (representing the corporate interests of the East India Company for commercial affairs) and the ‘Board of Control’ (representing the British Parliament for political and military affairs).
- The Catalyst of 1857: The devastating, bloody Revolt of 1857 brutally exposed the massive administrative failures, slow decision-making, and structural inefficiencies inherent in this divided, dual system of corporate-state governance.
- The Act of Abolition: Consequently, reacting to the mutiny, the British Parliament swiftly passed the Government of India Act 1858, which legally and permanently abolished both the Court of Directors and the Board of Control.
- Consolidation of Crown Power: By destroying the double government, the entire governing power, massive territorial assets, and military command were consolidated and transferred directly to the absolute authority of the British Crown.
- The New Secretary of State: Following this abolition, the supreme authority over India was thereafter exercised from London through a single, highly powerful newly created office: the Secretary of State for India, who was fully accountable only to the British Parliament.
π Quick Summary β Indian Polity Set 1
- 1773 Regulating Act: Designated the Governor-General of Bengal.
- 1784 Pitt’s India Act: Created Board of Control (Double Government).
- 1833 Charter Act: Lord William Bentick became 1st Governor-General of India.
- 1858 GOI Act: Abolished EIC, transferred power to the Crown; ended double government.
- 1909 Councils Act: Known as Morley-Minto Reforms.
- Viceroy’s Council: Satyendra Prasad Sinha was the first Indian member.
- 1919 GOI Act: Introduced bicameralism and direct elections (Dyarchy in provinces).
- Simon Commission: Appointed in 1927.
- 1935 GOI Act: Divided powers into Three Lists.
- Constituent Assembly Idea: Put forward by M.N. Roy in 1934.
- Assembly Strength: Formulated as 389 members under the Cabinet Mission.
- Temporary President: Dr. Sachchidananda Sinha.
- Objectives Resolution: Moved by Nehru on Dec 13, 1946.
- National Flag: Adopted on July 22, 1947.
- Drafting Committee: Chaired by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.
- Draft Consideration: Took exactly 114 days.
- Signing Members: 284 members signed on Nov 26, 1949.
- Father of Constitution: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.
- Assembly Seal: Elephant symbol adopted.
- Calligrapher: Prem Behari Narain Raizada.
- Hindi Text: Made authoritative by the 58th Amendment (1987).
- “One-party body”: Remarked by Granville Austin.
- Poona Pact (1932): Signed between Congress & Depressed Classes.
- June 3 Plan: Also known as the Mountbatten Plan for partition.
- First PM: Jawaharlal Nehru.
- First Home Minister: Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel (1947).
- Union Powers Committee: Chaired by Jawaharlal Nehru.
- Constitution Cost: Total expenditure amounted to βΉ64 lakh.
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