Modern History Set 85
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π Jallianwala Bagh β’ Leaders
Q.1) The Jallianwala Bagh massacre occurred on April 13, 1919, when troops opened fire on a peaceful gathering. Who was the British military commander that ordered the firing?
Ans > General Reginald Dyer
- The Commander in Charge: General Reginald Dyer, nicknamed the “Butcher of Amritsar,” was a British Indian Army officer who commanded the troops on April 13, 1919, during the Jallianwala Bagh massacre. He marched a detachment of 90 Gurkha and Baluchi soldiers into the enclosed ground.
- No Warning Given: Without issuing any prior warning for the peaceful crowd to disperse, he ordered his men to block the main exit and open fire directly into the densest parts of the gathering, which included unarmed men, women, and children celebrating the Baisakhi festival.
- The Aftermath: The troops fired 1,650 rounds of ammunition until they almost exhausted their supply. Official British Indian sources reported 379 dead, while the Indian National Congress estimated the casualties to be well over 1,000 dead and 1,500 injured. Dyer stated his intention was to strike terror and “produce a moral effect.”
π Protests β’ Personalities
Q.2) Following the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, which prominent Indian renounced his knighthood in protest?
Ans > Rabindranath Tagore
- A Nobel Laureate’s Protest: Rabindranath Tagore, the first Asian to win the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1913, was awarded a British Knighthood in 1915 by King George V. Following the horrific events of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, he was deeply disturbed by the brutality of the British administration.
- Formal Renunciation: On May 31, 1919, a month and a half after the massacre, Tagore wrote a highly publicized and strongly worded letter to Lord Chelmsford, the then Viceroy of India, formally renouncing his knighthood to protest the atrocities committed in Punjab.
- Context of Humiliation: In his historic letter, he stated that the time had come when “badges of honour make our shame glaring in their incongruous context of humiliation,” and he wished to stand shorn of all special distinctions by the side of his countrymen who suffered such degradation.
π Commissions β’ British India
Q.3) In 1919, the British government appointed the Hunter Commission to investigate the Jallianwala Bagh massacre. How many Indian members were part of this commission?
Ans > Three
- The Disorders Inquiry Committee: In response to mounting outrage in India and Britain over the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, the British government established the Disorders Inquiry Committee in October 1919. It became widely known as the Hunter Commission, named after its chairman, Lord William Hunter, a former Solicitor General of Scotland.
- Indian Representation: To ensure a semblance of representation, the British included three prominent Indian members in the commission: Sir Chimanlal Harilal Setalvad (Vice-Chancellor of Bombay University), Pandit Jagat Narayan (a lawyer from U.P.), and Sardar Sahibzada Sultan Ahmad Khan (a lawyer from Gwalior).
- Cross-Examination and Dissent: During the proceedings, these Indian members aggressively cross-examined General Dyer, exposing his unapologetic stance and deliberate intention to “punish” the Indians. Despite the Indian members submitting a dissenting minority report demanding stronger action against Dyer, the British majority report only mildly condemned him for a “mistaken concept of duty.”
π Khilafat Movement β’ Leaders
Q.4) The Khilafat Movement in India was launched to pressure the British government. Who formed the All India Khilafat Committee?
Ans > Ali Brothers (Shaukat Ali and Muhammad Ali)
- Protecting the Caliphate: The Khilafat Movement (1919-1924) was a pan-Islamic political protest campaign launched by Muslims in British India. Its primary goal was to pressure the British government to preserve the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire and the spiritual authority of the Ottoman Sultan as the Caliph (Khalifa) of Islam following World War I.
- The Core Leadership: The All India Khilafat Committee was spear-headed by the prominent Ali BrothersβShaukat Ali and Muhammad Ali Jauhar. They were deeply supported by other nationalist Muslim leaders, including Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Hasrat Mohani, and Hakim Ajmal Khan, who extensively toured the country to mobilize public sentiment.
- Alignment with Non-Cooperation: Recognizing the massive potential for Hindu-Muslim unity, Mahatma Gandhi passionately supported the Khilafat cause. He effectively merged the Khilafat demands with the broader Indian demand for Swaraj (self-rule), successfully launching the Non-Cooperation Movement as a unified front against British imperialism in 1920.
π INC Sessions β’ Movements
Q.5) The Indian National Congress officially endorsed the Non-Cooperation Movement at a special session in September 1920. In which city was this special session held?
Ans > Calcutta
- The Calcutta Special Session: The Indian National Congress convened a special, highly debated session in Calcutta from September 4 to 9, 1920, specifically to discuss Mahatma Gandhi’s radical proposal to launch the Non-Cooperation Movement. The session was presided over by the veteran leader Lala Lajpat Rai.
- Overcoming Initial Resistance: Gandhi’s proposal faced massive initial resistance from several senior Congress leaders, including C.R. Das, Annie Besant, and Bipin Chandra Pal, who were deeply skeptical about boycotting legislative councils and feared the movement might descend into violence. However, Gandhi argued that non-cooperation was the only peaceful alternative to armed rebellion.
- The Non-Cooperation Resolution: Despite the opposition, Gandhi’s resolution was successfully passed with a significant majority. The resolution adopted a comprehensive program of surrendering British titles, boycotting government affiliated schools, colleges, law courts, and foreign goods, and actively promoting the use of Khadi (hand-spun cloth) to cripple the British economic machinery in India.
π Chauri Chaura β’ Geography
Q.6) The Non-Cooperation Movement was abruptly called off following the violent Chauri Chaura incident. In which present-day state is Chauri Chaura located?
Ans > Uttar Pradesh
- Location of the Incident: Chauri Chaura is a historic town located in the Gorakhpur district of the present-day state of Uttar Pradesh in northern India. It became a critical turning point in India’s struggle for independence due to a violent incident that occurred there on February 4, 1922, during the peak of the Non-Cooperation Movement.
- The Escalation of Violence: A large group of protesting peasants and Congress volunteers were participating in a peaceful demonstration against high meat prices and liquor sales. When the local police attempted to stop them and eventually opened fire on the crowd, killing three civilians, the enraged mob heavily retaliated.
- Suspension of the Movement: The furious protesters chased the policemen back to their station, locked them inside, and set the entire police station on fire. Twenty-two policemen and chowkidars were burned alive. Deeply disturbed by this horrific violation of his strict principle of Ahimsa (non-violence), Mahatma Gandhi unilaterally called off the massive Non-Cooperation Movement, facing heavy criticism from young leaders.
π Swaraj Party β’ Strategy
Q.7) Following the suspension of the Non-Cooperation Movement, the Swaraj Party was formed in 1923. Its primary objective was to:
Ans > Enter the legislative councils to wreck them from within
- The Ideological Divide: Following Mahatma Gandhi’s abrupt suspension of the Non-Cooperation Movement in 1922 and his subsequent arrest, the Indian National Congress was deeply divided ideologically. One faction, known as the “Pro-changers,” vehemently advocated for ending the boycott of British legislative councils.
- Formation of the Party: Led by the brilliant lawyer Chittaranjan Das (C.R. Das) and Motilal Nehru, the Pro-changers formally established the Congress-Khilafat Swarajya Party, commonly known as the Swaraj Party, on January 1, 1923. C.R. Das became its President, and Motilal Nehru served as its Secretary.
- Wrecking from Within: The primary objective of the Swaraj Party was not to cooperate with the British administration, but rather to enter the central and provincial legislative councils to “wreck them from within.” They aimed to consistently obstruct official business, reject government budgets, and expose the farcical nature of the constitutional reforms introduced by the Government of India Act 1919.
π Revolutionary Movement β’ Kakori
Q.8) Which of the following revolutionaries was NOT hanged for the Kakori Train Robbery conspiracy?
Ans > Chandrashekhar Azad
- Financing the Revolution: The Hindustan Republican Association (HRA), a revolutionary organization established in 1924, urgently needed funds to purchase arms and finance their militant struggle against British rule. To achieve this, they meticulously planned a daring train robbery, which took place near the village of Kakori, near Lucknow, on August 9, 1925.
- The Train Robbery: Ten revolutionary members stopped the Number 8 Down Train traveling from Shahjahanpur to Lucknow and successfully looted the guard’s cabin containing British government money. The British administration launched a massive, ruthless manhunt, eventually arresting around 40 revolutionaries associated with the HRA and trying them in the famous Kakori Conspiracy Case.
- Executions and Evasion: Following a prolonged trial, the British court handed down severe sentences. Ramprasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan, Roshan Singh, and Rajendra Lahiri were sentenced to death and hanged in 1927. The brilliant strategist Chandrashekhar Azad successfully evaded capture, remaining a fugitive and later reforming the HRA into the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA).
π Commissions β’ Constitutional Reforms
Q.9) The Simon Commission, appointed in 1927, was officially known as what?
Ans > The Indian Statutory Commission
- The Commission’s Purpose: In November 1927, the British Conservative government unilaterally appointed a seven-member parliamentary committee to review the workings of the Government of India Act 1919 and recommend further constitutional reforms for India. Officially named the Indian Statutory Commission, it became universally known as the Simon Commission after its chairman, Sir John Simon.
- The All-White Insult: The appointment of the commission sparked unprecedented outrage and a united front across the entire Indian political spectrum. The core grievance was the blatant, insulting exclusion of Indiansβall seven members of the commission were white British Members of Parliament. Indians felt that their constitutional future was being decided without any native representation.
- Nationwide Boycott: The Indian National Congress, the Muslim League, and the Hindu Mahasabha all resolved to completely boycott the commission at every stage. When the commission finally arrived in Bombay on February 3, 1928, it was greeted with nationwide strikes (hartals), massive black flag demonstrations, and the deafening, iconic slogan, “Simon, Go Back!”
π Protests β’ Martyrs
Q.10) Which veteran Congress leader died due to injuries sustained from a police lathi charge while protesting against the Simon Commission in Lahore in 1928?
Ans > Lala Lajpat Rai
- The Lion of Punjab: Lala Lajpat Rai, affectionately revered as “Punjab Kesari” (The Lion of Punjab), was an incredibly prominent veteran leader of the Indian National Congress. He was a central figure in the famous “Lal Bal Pal” triumvirate and a fierce advocate for Indian independence and Swadeshi principles.
- The Brutal Assault: When the all-white Simon Commission visited Lahore on October 30, 1928, Lala Lajpat Rai led a massive, completely non-violent protest march towards the railway station. To suppress the peaceful demonstration, the local Superintendent of Police, James A. Scott, ordered a brutal, unprovoked lathi (baton) charge directly targeting the protesters.
- A Martyr’s Prophecy: Lajpat Rai was deliberately targeted and severely beaten during the assault, sustaining massive physical injuries to his chest and head. Despite his injuries, he famously declared, “Every blow aimed at me is a nail in the coffin of British imperialism.” He failed to fully recover from the brutal trauma and tragically passed away on November 17, 1928.
π HSRA β’ Revolutionary Acts
Q.11) To avenge the death of Lala Lajpat Rai, the HSRA assassinated John P. Saunders. Who among the following was NOT involved in this assassination?
Ans > Surya Sen
- Vowing Revenge: The tragic death of the beloved veteran leader Lala Lajpat Rai due to the brutal British police lathi charge deeply enraged the young, radical revolutionaries of the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA). They collectively vowed to avenge his death by assassinating the police official responsible for ordering the assault, James A. Scott.
- Mistaken Identity: On December 17, 1928, exactly a month after Lajpat Rai’s death, the revolutionary trio of Bhagat Singh, Shivaram Rajguru, and Sukhdev Thapar executed their plot in Lahore. However, in a case of mistaken identity, they fatally shot John P. Saunders, an Assistant Superintendent of Police, instead of their intended target, Scott.
- Surya Sen’s Role: Following the successful assassination, the revolutionaries managed to dramatically escape the heavily guarded city of Lahore. Surya Sen, affectionately known as Masterda, was not involved in this Punjab-based conspiracy; he was a prominent Bengali revolutionary who famously masterminded and led the highly daring Chittagong Armoury Raid in eastern India in 1930.
π Political Leagues β’ Leaders
Q.12) Due to dissatisfaction with the Nehru Report’s goal of Dominion Status, who formed the ‘Independence for India League’?
Ans > Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose
- Rejection of Dominion Status: The Nehru Report, drafted in 1928 under the chairmanship of Motilal Nehru, was an Indian attempt to draft a constitutional framework in response to the all-white Simon Commission. However, the report’s primary recommendation of seeking “Dominion Status” for India within the British Empire deeply disappointed the younger, more radical wing of the Congress.
- Demand for Complete Freedom: Fiercely rejecting the concept of Dominion Status as a compromised half-measure, young, highly influential leaders Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose argued passionately that India must settle for nothing less than “Purna Swaraj” or complete, uncompromising independence from British imperial rule.
- Formalizing the Opposition: To formally organize opposition against the Nehru Report’s moderate goals, Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose co-founded the ‘Independence for India League’ in 1928. This pressure group successfully radicalized the Congress base, ultimately forcing the Indian National Congress to formally adopt Purna Swaraj as its sole objective at the historic Lahore session in 1929.
π INC Sessions β’ Purna Swaraj
Q.13) The historic 1929 Lahore session of the INC, which passed the Purna Swaraj resolution, also authorized the launch of which movement?
Ans > The Civil Disobedience Movement
- The Purna Swaraj Resolution: The Lahore session of the Indian National Congress in December 1929 stands as one of the most transformative milestones in India’s freedom struggle. Presided over by a young Jawaharlal Nehru, the session formally abandoned the moderate demand for Dominion Status and officially adopted the historic resolution for ‘Purna Swaraj’βComplete Independence.
- A Symbolic Independence Day: To symbolize this monumental shift in ideology, the newly adopted tricolor flag of Indian independence was proudly hoisted on the banks of the Ravi river in Lahore at midnight on December 31, 1929. The Congress also declared that January 26, 1930, would be celebrated across the nation as the first Independence Day (Poorna Swaraj Diwas).
- Authorizing Mass Action: Beyond just passing resolutions, the Lahore session authorized the Congress Working Committee to launch a massive, nationwide Civil Disobedience Movement. Mahatma Gandhi was vested with the absolute authority to decide the specific timing, strategy, and central issue of this movement, which ultimately led him to choose the oppressive British salt tax as the focal point.
π Dandi March β’ Salt Satyagraha
Q.14) The ‘Dandi March’, which initiated the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1930, began from Sabarmati Ashram with how many chosen followers of Gandhi?
Ans > 78
- The Target of the Tax: To initiate the Civil Disobedience Movement, Mahatma Gandhi meticulously planned a massive, highly symbolic march to protest the draconian British Salt Act of 1882. This law established a strict British monopoly on the manufacture and sale of salt, heavily taxing an absolute, basic necessity of life that disproportionately burdened the poorest Indians.
- The Chosen 78: The historic Dandi March, also known as the Salt Satyagraha, commenced on March 12, 1930, from Gandhi’s Sabarmati Ashram in Ahmedabad. Gandhi was accompanied by exactly 78 carefully chosen, highly disciplined ashram volunteers representing diverse regions, religions, and castes of India, demonstrating the pan-Indian unity of the struggle.
- Breaking the Law: The 240-mile (386 km) journey to the coastal village of Dandi in Gujarat took 24 days. Gandhi addressed massive crowds in villages along the route, turning the march into a massive international media event. On April 6, 1930, Gandhi ceremoniously broke the law by picking up a lump of natural salt from the Arabian Sea shore, igniting nationwide civil disobedience.
π Civil Disobedience β’ NWFP
Q.15) During the Civil Disobedience Movement, the ‘Khudai Khidmatgars’ (Red Shirts) led a massive struggle in the NWFP. Who was their leader?
Ans > Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan
- The Frontier Gandhi: The Civil Disobedience Movement saw incredible, unprecedented participation from the fiercely independent Pashtun tribes in the deeply conservative North-West Frontier Province (NWFP). This massive mobilization was entirely organized by Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, a deeply devout Muslim who was profoundly inspired by Mahatma Gandhi’s strict philosophy of Ahimsa (non-violence).
- Servants of God: Affectionately revered as the “Frontier Gandhi,” Ghaffar Khan founded the ‘Khudai Khidmatgars’ (Servants of God) in 1929. They were popularly referred to as the ‘Red Shirts’ due to the distinctive, cheap brick-red uniforms they wore. The organization was built on principles of social reform, education, and absolute non-violent resistance against British imperialism.
- The Qissa Khwani Bazaar Massacre: During the 1930 Civil Disobedience Movement, the Khudai Khidmatgars led massive, peaceful protests in Peshawar. In a highly famous incident at the Qissa Khwani Bazaar, unarmed Red Shirts peacefully faced British armored cars and heavy machine-gun fire without retaliating. Their incredible bravery heavily shattered the British stereotype of the inherently violent Pashtun warrior.
π Round Table Conferences β’ Boycotts
Q.16) The First Round Table Conference (1930) was convened by the British government. Which major party boycotted it?
Ans > The Indian National Congress
- Discussing Constitutional Reforms: The First Round Table Conference was convened by the British government in London from November 1930 to January 1931. Its primary objective was to discuss constitutional reforms for India based on the highly controversial Simon Commission report, marking the first time Indians were treated as equal negotiating partners by the British.
- The Official Boycott: The conference was attended by various Indian representatives, including delegates from the Muslim League, the Hindu Mahasabha, the Liberals, and numerous rulers of the Princely States. However, the Indian National Congress, the largest and most prominent political organization in India, completely and officially boycotted the entire conference proceedings.
- Lack of Legitimate Outcomes: The Congress boycott was a direct consequence of the ongoing, massive Civil Disobedience Movement. At the time of the conference, almost the entire senior leadership of the Congress, including Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, along with tens of thousands of ordinary Satyagrahis, were incarcerated in British jails. Without Congress participation, the conference failed to produce any legitimate, binding constitutional settlement.
π Pacts & Treaties β’ Gandhi
Q.17) What major concession did the British government grant in the Gandhi-Irwin Pact (March 1931)?
Ans > Release of all political prisoners not convicted of violence
- Negotiating an End to the Deadlock: To end the massive political deadlock caused by the Civil Disobedience Movement and ensure Congress participation in the Second Round Table Conference, the British Viceroy, Lord Irwin, initiated direct, highly publicized negotiations with Mahatma Gandhi. This resulted in the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, signed in Delhi on March 5, 1931.
- British Concessions: Under the terms of the pact, the British government agreed to several major concessions. The most critical was the immediate release of all political prisoners who had not been convicted of violent crimes. Additionally, the government agreed to return confiscated lands to peasants and permitted coastal villagers to legally manufacture salt for their personal consumption.
- Suspension of the Movement: In exchange for these concessions, Mahatma Gandhi formally agreed to suspend the highly disruptive Civil Disobedience Movement. He also committed the Indian National Congress to officially participate in the upcoming Second Round Table Conference in London. However, the pact was heavily criticized by young revolutionaries because Gandhi failed to secure a commutation of the death sentences for Bhagat Singh and his comrades.
π Communal Award β’ Electorates
Q.18) Following the Second Round Table Conference, British PM Ramsay MacDonald announced the ‘Communal Award’. What did it grant to the Depressed Classes?
Ans > Separate electorates
- The Imperial Policy of Division: Following the spectacular failure of the Second Round Table Conference to reach any consensus on minority representation, British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald unilaterally announced the ‘Communal Award’ on August 16, 1932. This award was a highly controversial constitutional maneuver deeply rooted in the British imperial policy of “Divide and Rule.”
- Expanding Separate Electorates: The Communal Award retained separate electorates for Muslims, Sikhs, and Europeansβa system already in place. However, its most inflammatory provision was granting, for the very first time, separate electorates to the ‘Depressed Classes’ (Scheduled Castes), who were officially classified as a minority community separate from the general Hindu population.
- Fierce Opposition from Gandhi: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar heavily supported the award, arguing it was absolutely necessary for the political empowerment of the untouchables. Conversely, Mahatma Gandhi vehemently opposed it, viewing it as a sinister British attempt to permanently fracture and disintegrate Hindu society by constitutionally severing the Depressed Classes from the mainstream Hindu fold.
π Poona Pact β’ Agreements
Q.19) In protest against the Communal Award, Gandhi undertook a fast. The resulting Poona Pact was signed by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and who else?
Ans > Madan Mohan Malaviya
- A Fast Unto Death: Deeply distressed by the British implementation of the Communal Award, Mahatma Gandhi, who was incarcerated in the Yerwada Central Jail in Poona, commenced an epic “fast unto death” on September 20, 1932. He demanded the absolute revocation of separate electorates for the Depressed Classes, risking his life to preserve Hindu unity.
- Mounting Pressure for Compromise: Gandhi’s rapidly deteriorating health triggered immense national anxiety and placed massive public pressure on Dr. B.R. Ambedkar to compromise. Hectic negotiations ensued between Ambedkar and prominent upper-caste Hindu leaders to find a mutually acceptable constitutional alternative to save Gandhi’s life.
- Signing the Pact: The resulting agreement, heavily known as the Poona Pact, was signed on September 24, 1932. Dr. Ambedkar signed on behalf of the Depressed Classes, while the veteran orthodox Hindu leader Madan Mohan Malaviya signed on behalf of the caste Hindus. The pact successfully abolished separate electorates for the untouchables but massively increased the number of reserved seats for them within the general joint electorate.
π Acts & Reforms β’ Constitution
Q.20) The Government of India Act 1935 abolished Dyarchy in the provinces and replaced it with which new system?
Ans > Provincial Autonomy
- The Foundation for the Constitution: The Government of India Act 1935 was the longest, most complex piece of legislation ever passed by the British Parliament at that time. It was the direct result of the lengthy discussions held during the three Round Table Conferences and served as the fundamental framework for the future Constitution of independent India.
- The Failure of Dyarchy: The most significant structural change introduced by the 1935 Act was the complete abolition of ‘Dyarchy’ at the provincial level. Dyarchy, introduced in 1919, had deeply frustrated Indians by splitting provincial administration, keeping crucial portfolios like finance and police entirely under British control while handing less important departments to Indian ministers.
- Introducing Provincial Autonomy: In place of Dyarchy, the Act introduced ‘Provincial Autonomy.’ This meant that the provincial governments were now fully responsible to the elected provincial legislatures. Indian ministers, chosen from the elected representatives, gained control over all provincial departments, though the British Governors still retained overriding emergency powers to dismiss the ministries if necessary.
π WWII β’ Congress Ministries
Q.21) When did the Congress ministries, formed in a majority of the provinces after the 1937 elections, resign en masse?
Ans > October 1939 (in protest against India being dragged into WWII)
- The 1937 Election Victories: Following the massive provincial elections mandated by the Government of India Act 1935, the Indian National Congress achieved sweeping victories in 1937. They successfully formed responsible popular ministries in eight out of the eleven British Indian provinces, giving Indian leaders their first real taste of extensive administrative power.
- India Declared a Belligerent: When World War II broke out in September 1939, the British Viceroy, Lord Linlithgow, unilaterally declared India a belligerent state, committing millions of Indian troops and vast national resources to the Allied war effort. He did this without consulting the elected Congress ministries or any central Indian political leadership.
- Mass Resignations as Protest: Deeply insulted by this arrogant, imperialistic disregard for Indian democratic institutions, the Congress Working Committee demanded an immediate declaration of British war aims and a promise of post-war independence. When the British completely refused to offer concrete guarantees, the Congress high command ordered all its provincial ministries to resign en masse in October 1939 in strict protest.
π August Offer β’ Viceroys
Q.22) In 1940, the Viceroy issued the ‘August Offer’, promising Dominion Status after WWII. Which Viceroy made this offer?
Ans > Lord Linlithgow
- The Desperate Need for Support: By the summer of 1940, the geopolitical situation for Britain looked incredibly bleak. The rapid, devastating fall of France to Nazi Germany and the intense aerial bombardment during the Battle of Britain forced the British government to urgently seek the active, unreserved cooperation of Indian political leaders for the massive war effort.
- Lord Linlithgow’s Statement: To appease Indian demands and break the ongoing political deadlock following the resignation of the Congress ministries, the Viceroy of India, Lord Linlithgow, issued a highly publicized statement in August 1940, which became historically known as the ‘August Offer’.
- Proposals and Rejection: The August Offer proposed the expansion of the Viceroy’s Executive Council to include more Indians and promised the establishment of an Indian constituent assembly strictly after the war to determine India’s future constitution. Crucially, it officially recognized “Dominion Status” as the ultimate objective for India. However, the Congress wholly rejected the offer, stating that Dominion Status was a “dead as a doornail” concept, demanding complete independence instead.
π Individual Satyagraha β’ Leaders
Q.23) Rejecting the August Offer, Mahatma Gandhi launched the ‘Individual Satyagraha’ in 1940. Who was selected as the first Satyagrahi?
Ans > Acharya Vinoba Bhave
- A Controlled Protest Strategy: Following the firm rejection of the August Offer, Mahatma Gandhi decided to launch a limited, highly controlled protest campaign. He deliberately avoided a massive mass movement because he did not want to aggressively embarrass or violently hamper the British government while they were actively fighting a desperate war against Nazi fascism.
- The Mechanism of Protest: This new phase was named the ‘Individual Satyagraha’. Instead of massive crowds breaking laws, Gandhi strictly selected individual leaders to publicly march to a designated spot, make an anti-war speech demanding freedom of speech, and peacefully court arrest by the British police.
- The First Satyagrahis: Gandhi carefully selected Acharya Vinoba Bhave, a deeply spiritual disciple and social reformer, to be the very first Individual Satyagrahi in October 1940. Jawaharlal Nehru was selected as the second, and Brahma Datt as the third. The movement slowly gained momentum, eventually leading to the arrest of over 25,000 Congress workers across the country before it was suspended in 1941.
π Cripps Mission β’ Quotes
Q.24) The Cripps Mission arrived in India in March 1942. Which Indian leader famously dismissed the proposal as a “post-dated cheque on a crashing bank”?
Ans > Mahatma Gandhi
- International Pressure to Negotiate: In March 1942, with the Imperial Japanese Army rapidly advancing through Southeast Asia and threatening the eastern borders of India, the British government faced immense pressure from its American and Chinese allies to resolve the Indian political crisis. Prime Minister Winston Churchill reluctantly dispatched a mission led by Sir Stafford Cripps to negotiate with Indian leaders.
- The Post-War Promise: The Cripps Mission proposed that immediately after the conclusion of World War II, India would be granted Dominion Status with the right to secede from the British Commonwealth. It also promised the creation of a purely Indian constituent assembly to frame a new constitution, provided that any province could choose not to join the new Indian Union.
- A Post-Dated Cheque: The Indian National Congress absolutely rejected the proposals because they offered no immediate transfer of power or real control over India’s defense during the critical wartime period. Mahatma Gandhi famously and sharply summarized the utter inadequacy of the Cripps proposal by dismissing it as a worthless “post-dated cheque on a crashing bank.”
π Quit India β’ Bombay
Q.25) The historic “Quit India” resolution was passed by the AICC on August 8, 1942, at which specific location in Bombay?
Ans > Gowalia Tank Maidan
- The Call for Total Withdrawal: The spectacular failure of the Cripps Mission convinced Mahatma Gandhi that the British had no real intention of relinquishing power and that their continued presence in India actually invited a Japanese invasion. He concluded that only an immediate, total British withdrawal could save India, leading to the massive ‘Quit India’ movement.
- The AICC Session in Bombay: The All India Congress Committee (AICC) convened a historic session at the Gowalia Tank Maidan in Bombay (now appropriately renamed August Kranti Maidan) to discuss this radical new strategy. On August 8, 1942, the AICC formally and overwhelmingly passed the famous “Quit India” resolution, demanding an immediate end to British rule.
- Do or Die: At this session, Gandhi delivered an electrifying, deeply passionate speech, giving the masses the immortal mantra: “Do or Die.” He stated, “We shall either free India or die in the attempt; we shall not live to see the perpetuation of our slavery.” The very next morning, the British initiated a massive crackdown, arresting the entire Congress high command.
π INA β’ WWII
Q.26) The Indian National Army (INA) was formed in Southeast Asia during WWII. Who originally conceptualized and established the first INA in 1942?
Ans > Captain Mohan Singh
- Prisoners of War in Malaya: During the early stages of World War II, the Imperial Japanese Army rapidly conquered British Malaya and Singapore, capturing tens of thousands of soldiers belonging to the British Indian Army. The Japanese intelligence sought to utilize these disaffected Indian troops to subvert British rule in India.
- The Role of Captain Mohan Singh: The original concept and physical formation of the first Indian National Army (INA) was spearheaded by Captain Mohan Singh, an officer of the British Indian Army who had surrendered to the Japanese in Malaya in 1941. Encouraged by the Japanese major Iwaichi Fujiwara, Singh successfully convinced thousands of Indian Prisoners of War (POWs) to switch allegiances and fight for India’s liberation.
- Revival by Subhas Chandra Bose: Under Mohan Singh’s leadership, the first INA was formally established in 1942. However, deep disagreements quickly arose between Singh and the Japanese military command regarding the size, autonomy, and strategic role of the INA, leading to Singh’s arrest. The organization was later spectacularly revived, heavily expanded, and led by Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose in 1943.
π C.R. Formula β’ Partition Politics
Q.27) To break the political deadlock, C. Rajagopalachari proposed the “C.R. Formula” in 1944. What was its primary objective?
Ans > To achieve a political settlement between the Congress and the Muslim League
- The Deepening Political Deadlock: By 1944, the Indian political landscape was paralyzed by a massive deadlock between the Indian National Congress, which demanded a united, independent India, and the All-India Muslim League, led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, which stubbornly insisted on the partition of India and the creation of a separate sovereign state of Pakistan.
- Drafting a Compromise: To desperately bridge this widening communal divide and present a united front to the British, the veteran Congress leader from Madras, C. Rajagopalachari (popularly known as Rajaji), drafted a highly controversial compromise proposal. This proposal became widely known in political circles as the “C.R. Formula” or Rajaji Formula.
- Proposals of the Formula: The primary objective of the C.R. Formula was to offer a tacit, conditional acceptance of the Pakistan demand. It proposed that the Muslim League endorse the Congress demand for independence and cooperate in forming an interim government. In return, after the war, Muslim-majority districts in the Northwest and East would vote in a plebiscite to decide whether they wanted to form a separate sovereign state. Jinnah ultimately rejected the formula.
π INA Trials β’ Red Fort
Q.28) Following WWII, the historic INA trials took place at the Red Fort in Delhi. Which prominent lawyer led the defense team for the INA officers?
Ans > Bhulabhai Desai
- The Court-Martials at Red Fort: Following the ultimate defeat of Japan and the collapse of the Indian National Army in World War II, the British Indian government decided to publicly court-martial several prominent INA officers for treason and waging war against the King-Emperor. The highly publicized trials were held at the iconic Red Fort in Delhi between November 1945 and May 1946.
- A Wave of Nationalist Support: The British completely misjudged the massive public sentiment. The trials triggered an unprecedented wave of nationalist fervor, sympathy, and violent protests across India. The Indian National Congress heavily capitalized on this mood, setting up a dedicated INA Defence Committee to legally represent the accused officers, notably Shah Nawaz Khan, Prem Sahgal, and Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon.
- The Masterful Defense Team: The defense team was a massive congregation of legal giants. It was brilliantly led by the highly respected advocate Bhulabhai Desai, whose masterful closing arguments challenged the legal basis of the trials under international law. He was strongly supported by Tej Bahadur Sapru, Asaf Ali, and even Jawaharlal Nehru, who symbolically donned his barrister’s gown after decades to join the defense.
π Cabinet Mission β’ Direct Action Day
Q.29) What was the Muslim League’s reaction to the Cabinet Mission Plan (1946) after initially accepting it?
Ans > They withdrew their acceptance and called for “Direct Action Day”
- A Three-Tier Proposal: In early 1946, the newly elected British Labour government dispatched a high-level Cabinet Mission to India to negotiate the final transfer of power. The mission proposed a highly complex, three-tier federal structure for a united India, deliberately rejecting the Muslim League’s demand for a completely separate, sovereign Pakistan.
- The Grouping Controversy: The plan grouped provinces into three distinct sections (A, B, and C) based on Hindu and Muslim majorities. Initially, both the Congress and the Muslim League cautiously accepted the plan. However, a massive dispute quickly erupted over the compulsory nature of these groupings, with Congress arguing provinces could opt out, while the League insisted the groupings were absolutely mandatory.
- The Call for Direct Action: Furious over the Congress’s interpretation and feeling betrayed by the British, Muhammad Ali Jinnah formally withdrew the Muslim League’s acceptance of the Cabinet Mission Plan. To achieve Pakistan by force, he ominously called for “Direct Action Day” on August 16, 1946. This call unleashed unprecedented, horrific communal riots and massacres, starting with the Great Calcutta Killings, making partition utterly inevitable.
π Mountbatten Plan β’ Partition
Q.30) The Mountbatten Plan, which laid out the legal framework for the partition of India, was formally announced on which date?
Ans > June 3, 1947
- The Inevitability of Partition: By early 1947, India was descending into massive communal civil war, and the British administrative machinery was rapidly collapsing. The new Viceroy, Lord Louis Mountbatten, quickly concluded that the Cabinet Mission Plan was completely dead and that partitioning the subcontinent was the only viable, albeit tragic, solution to expedite the British withdrawal.
- Announcing the 3 June Plan: After intense, high-speed negotiations with the top leadership of the Congress, the Muslim League, and the Sikh community, Mountbatten formulated a definitive plan for the immediate transfer of power. This plan was formally announced to the world on June 3, 1947, and is commonly referred to as the 3 June Plan or the Mountbatten Plan.
- The Mechanics of Division: The plan provided the exact legal mechanism for the partition of British India. It explicitly laid out the procedures for the legislative assemblies of Bengal and Punjab to vote on partitioning their respective provinces. It also established boundary commissions to draw the exact borders and significantly advanced the date of independence from June 1948 to a highly rushed date of August 15, 1947.
π Quick Summary β Modern History Set 85
- Jallianwala Bagh: General Reginald Dyer ordered the massacre on April 13, 1919.
- Protests: Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood against the massacre.
- Hunter Commission: Included three Indian members to investigate the 1919 massacre.
- Khilafat Movement: Ali Brothers founded the All India Khilafat Committee.
- Non-Cooperation: Officially endorsed at the special Calcutta session of INC in 1920.
- Chauri Chaura: The violent 1922 incident occurred in present-day Uttar Pradesh.
- Swaraj Party: Formed to enter and disrupt legislative councils from within.
- Kakori Robbery: Chandrashekhar Azad evaded hanging; Bismil and others were executed.
- Simon Commission: Officially known as the Indian Statutory Commission.
- Lala Lajpat Rai: Died from injuries during a police lathi charge against the Simon Commission.
- Saunders Assassination: Carried out by Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Sukhdev.
- Independence League: Founded by Nehru and Bose demanding Purna Swaraj.
- Lahore Session 1929: Authorized the launch of the Civil Disobedience Movement.
- Dandi March: Gandhi started the salt satyagraha with 78 followers.
- Khudai Khidmatgars: Non-violent movement led by Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan in NWFP.
- Round Table Conference: INC boycotted the first session in 1930.
- Gandhi-Irwin Pact: Secured the release of non-violent political prisoners.
- Communal Award 1932: Granted separate electorates to Depressed Classes.
- Poona Pact: Signed by B.R. Ambedkar and Madan Mohan Malaviya.
- GOI Act 1935: Introduced Provincial Autonomy, abolishing dyarchy.
- Congress Resignation: Ministries resigned in Oct 1939 protesting WWII involvement.
- August Offer: Made by Viceroy Lord Linlithgow in 1940 proposing Dominion Status.
- Individual Satyagraha: Acharya Vinoba Bhave was chosen as the first Satyagrahi.
- Cripps Mission: Dismissed by Gandhi as a “post-dated cheque”.
- Quit India: Resolution passed at Gowalia Tank Maidan, Bombay in 1942.
- Indian National Army: Originally conceptualized by Captain Mohan Singh.
- C.R. Formula: Proposed by Rajagopalachari to settle Congress-League differences.
- INA Trials: Bhulabhai Desai led the defense at the Red Fort.
- Cabinet Mission Plan: Muslim League rejected it eventually and launched Direct Action Day.
- Mountbatten Plan: Announced on June 3, 1947, detailing the partition of India.
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