Modern History Set 74
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📌 Literature • Social Reform
Q.1) The Satyarth Prakash (The Light of Truth), a foundational text outlining the philosophy and principles of the Arya Samaj, was authored by whom?
Ans > Swami Dayanand Saraswati
- Founding & Core Philosophy: The Satyarth Prakash (The Light of Truth) was authored in 1875 by the great socio-religious reformer Swami Dayanand Saraswati, who founded the Arya Samaj in Bombay in the exact same year. The book aggressively champions a “Go back to the Vedas” approach, establishing his core belief that the original Vedic scriptures are completely infallible and contain the absolute truth of all human knowledge.
- Social Reform Crusade: Through this foundational text, Dayanand Saraswati launched a massive, uncompromising intellectual crusade against orthodox Hindu practices. He vehemently condemned idol worship, animal sacrifice, polytheism, pilgrimages, and the hereditary caste system. He argued that the Varna system should be based entirely on merit and occupation, not birth.
- Impact on Society: Furthermore, the text laid the ideological groundwork for the Shuddhi movement (reconversion to Hinduism) and deeply influenced the establishment of the massive D.A.V. (Dayanand Anglo-Vedic) educational network. It actively promoted female education, widow remarriage, and equal rights for all castes, making it one of the most transformative socio-religious texts in modern Indian history.
📌 Social Reform • Books
Q.2) Which prominent social reformer from Maharashtra authored the book Gulamgiri in 1873 to critique the caste system and Brahminical supremacy?
Ans > Jyotiba Phule
- Founding the Satyashodhak Samaj: Jyotiba Phule, born into the Mali (gardener) caste, was a revolutionary thinker who authored Gulamgiri (Slavery) in 1873. In the exact same year, he founded the Satyashodhak Samaj (Truth Seekers’ Society) alongside his wife Savitribai Phule to secure human rights and social justice for low-caste people.
- The Global Perspective: Phule uniquely connected the suffering of the lower castes in India with global struggles against oppression. He famously dedicated Gulamgiri to the abolitionists of the American Civil War, drawing a powerful, direct intellectual parallel between the terrible condition of the Shudras and Ati-Shudras in India and the enslaved African Americans in the United States.
- Critique of Brahminical Dominance: The book serves as a brutal critique of Brahminical supremacy. Phule aggressively challenged the orthodox Aryan invasion theory, arguing that the upper-caste Brahmins were essentially foreign invaders who subjugated the indigenous populations (the lower castes) and invented the complex caste system solely to maintain their social and economic hegemony over the masses.
📌 Economy • Nationalist Critique
Q.3) The book Economic History of India, which provided a devastating critique of the economic impact of British rule, was written in the early 20th century by whom?
Ans > Romesh Chandra Dutt
- The Author’s Background: Romesh Chandra Dutt (R.C. Dutt) was a highly distinguished Indian Civil Service (ICS) officer who voluntarily retired to enter nationalist politics. He later presided over the Indian National Congress session at Lucknow in 1899. His deep administrative experience allowed him to analyze British policies with unmatched statistical precision.
- The Economic Masterpiece: Published in two massive volumes in the early 1900s, his book Economic History of India provided a deeply researched, data-backed timeline of India’s deliberate deindustrialization. He heavily blamed the exorbitant land tax rates (especially in the Ryotwari areas) for reducing the Indian peasantry to absolute, crushing poverty and triggering devastating recurrent famines.
- The Drain of Wealth: Alongside Dadabhai Naoroji, Dutt was the primary architect of the “Drain of Wealth” theory. He powerfully argued that the British systematically drained India’s capital through “Home Charges,” unrequited exports, and massive administrative costs. He famously criticized the British for prioritizing expensive strategic railways (which aided British troop movement and raw material extraction) over much-needed agricultural irrigation projects.
📌 Press • Nationalism
Q.4) The pioneering nationalist newspaper The Hindu was founded in 1878 in Madras. Who among the following was one of its principal founders?
Ans > G. Subramaniya Iyer
- The “Triplicane Six”: The Hindu was boldly established in 1878 as a weekly newspaper by a dynamic group of six young men, famously known as the “Triplicane Six,” led by G. Subramaniya Iyer and M. Veeraraghavachariar. It was initially launched to strongly protest the Anglo-Indian press’s racist campaign against the appointment of Sir T. Muthuswamy Iyer as the first Indian judge to the Madras High Court.
- Growth and Influence: Under the brilliant editorship of G. Subramaniya Iyer, the publication quickly transitioned into a tri-weekly in 1883 and eventually a prominent daily by 1889. It served as the primary intellectual voice of the Indian National Congress in the southern provinces, fiercely criticizing the oppressive economic policies and administrative arrogance of the British Raj.
- Commitment to Social Reform: Iyer was not just a political nationalist; he was a deeply committed social reformer. He alienated many of his orthodox Hindu readers by actively championing widow remarriage—a belief he cemented by controversially organizing the remarriage of his own widowed daughter, proving his absolute dedication to eradicating regressive social customs.
📌 Press • Maharashtra
Q.5) The influential Marathi newspaper Sudharak, known for its strong advocacy of social reform and rationalism, was founded by which leader?
Ans > Gopal Ganesh Agarkar
- The Intellectual Split: Gopal Ganesh Agarkar was initially a close associate of Bal Gangadhar Tilak. Together, they founded the Deccan Education Society, Fergusson College, and the newspaper Kesari (of which Agarkar was the first editor). However, a massive ideological rift developed between them regarding the sequence of the national struggle: Tilak prioritized political freedom first, while Agarkar fiercely argued that deep social reform was the prerequisite for true independence.
- Founding of Sudharak: Following their bitter split over the Age of Consent Bill (which Agarkar supported and Tilak opposed on the grounds of British interference in Hindu customs), Agarkar resigned from Kesari. In 1888, he founded his own powerful Marathi publication, Sudharak (The Reformer), to freely propagate his progressive, rationalist views without compromise.
- Advocacy for Rationalism: Sudharak became the leading intellectual organ for social revolution in Maharashtra. Agarkar used it to launch blistering attacks against the horrific practice of untouchability, the subjugation of women, and blind religious orthodoxy. He aggressively championed female education, widow remarriage, and a society based completely on scientific rationalism rather than blind scriptural authority.
📌 Press • INC Supporters
Q.6) The English-language daily The Bombay Chronicle, an important nationalist newspaper that supported the Indian National Congress, was founded in 1910 by whom?
Ans > Pherozeshah Mehta
- The “Lion of Bombay”: Sir Pherozeshah Mehta, widely respected as the “Lion of Bombay” and a towering figure among the moderate leadership of the Indian National Congress, founded The Bombay Chronicle in 1910. He recognized the urgent need for a powerful English-language daily in western India to firmly articulate the Indian political viewpoint and counter the narratives of the pro-British Anglo-Indian press.
- The Role of B.G. Horniman: The newspaper truly gained historical prominence under the brilliant, fearless editorship of Benjamin Guy Horniman, a deeply sympathetic British journalist. Horniman notoriously utilized the newspaper to fiercely expose the horrors of the 1919 Jallianwala Bagh massacre to the world, smuggling uncensored photographs and reports to London, which eventually led to his forced deportation by the furious British authorities.
- A Congress Mouthpiece: Throughout the turbulent decades of the freedom struggle, The Bombay Chronicle remained an incredibly vital organ for nationalist discourse. It consistently supported the political campaigns of Mahatma Gandhi and the Congress, thoroughly documenting major satyagrahas and providing crucial intellectual support to the independence movement until it eventually ceased publication in 1959.
📌 Press • Economic Critique
Q.7) Voice of India, a prominent newspaper published in Bombay that championed the Indian cause and critiqued British economic policies, was started by whom?
Ans > Dadabhai Naoroji
- The Grand Old Man’s Initiative: Dadabhai Naoroji, affectionately revered as the “Grand Old Man of India,” launched the Voice of India in Bombay in 1883. His primary objective was to create a robust journalistic platform that could systematically educate both the Indian masses and sympathetic British citizens about the grim realities of colonial exploitation occurring under the disguise of ‘civilizing’ rule.
- Propagating the Drain Theory: Naoroji heavily utilized the publication to serialize and popularize his groundbreaking economic research, which culminated in his famous book Poverty and Un-British Rule in India. The newspaper meticulously detailed how India’s wealth was being systematically siphoned off to Britain through “Home Charges,” guaranteed railway profits, and exorbitant administrative salaries, directly causing catastrophic poverty and widespread famines.
- A Legacy of Representation: Beyond his journalistic endeavors with Voice of India and the Gujarati paper Rast Goftar, Naoroji was a political titan. He became the very first Asian to be elected as a Member of Parliament (MP) in the British House of Commons (for Finsbury Central). Furthermore, he presided over the Indian National Congress three times, famously declaring “Swaraj” (self-government) as the ultimate goal in the 1906 Calcutta session.
📌 Press • Extremist Faction
Q.8) Which radical Bengali nationalist launched the English newspaper Bande Mataram in 1906, which became a powerful voice for the Extremist faction?
Ans > Bipin Chandra Pal
- The Swadeshi Surge: Bande Mataram was launched as an English-language daily in 1906 by the fiery nationalist Bipin Chandra Pal, right at the explosive peak of the Swadeshi and Boycott movements triggered by Lord Curzon’s deeply unpopular partition of Bengal. The publication immediately established itself as the aggressive, uncompromising mouthpiece of the Extremist faction within the Indian National Congress.
- Aurobindo’s Editorial Genius: While Pal founded the paper, it was heavily shaped and brilliantly edited by Sri Aurobindo Ghosh. Under Aurobindo’s intellectual direction, Bande Mataram openly mocked the moderate Congress leadership’s policy of “political mendicancy” (praying and petitioning). Instead, it boldly popularized the radical concepts of absolute Swaraj (complete independence), national education, and widespread passive resistance.
- The Sedition Trial: The paper’s fiercely anti-imperialist tone quickly drew the ire of the British Raj. In 1907, the government launched the infamous Bande Mataram sedition case against Aurobindo Ghosh for publishing highly inflammatory articles. He was masterfully defended by the legendary lawyer C.R. Das, highlighting the paper’s immense role in radicalizing the Indian youth before it was ultimately suppressed by strict press laws.
📌 Press • Revolutionary Nationalism
Q.9) The revolutionary Bengali weekly Yugantar, which openly preached armed rebellion against the British, was started in 1906 by Barindra Kumar Ghosh and whom?
Ans > Bhupendranath Datta
- Mouthpiece of the Anushilan Samiti: Yugantar (meaning “New Era”) was launched in April 1906 by Barindra Kumar Ghosh (the younger brother of Aurobindo Ghosh) and Bhupendranath Datta (the younger brother of Swami Vivekananda). It quickly became the primary propaganda organ for the Jugantar faction of the Anushilan Samiti, a highly secretive revolutionary society operating in Bengal.
- Preaching Armed Struggle: Unlike the moderate press that begged for concessions, Yugantar took a highly militant, uncompromising stance. It openly published manuals on bomb-making, glorified political assassination as a sacred duty, and aggressively urged the Bengali youth to take up arms against oppressive British magistrates and police officials to avenge the horrific partition of Bengal.
- British Crackdown & Alipore Bomb Case: The publication’s immense popularity and dangerous rhetoric led to severe crackdowns. Bhupendranath Datta was arrested for sedition in 1907. The inflammatory writings eventually culminated in the Muzaffarpur bombing incident and the subsequent unearthing of a massive bomb factory in Maniktala, leading to the sensational Alipore Bomb Trial (1908) which saw the arrest of Barindra Ghosh and the end of the paper’s open publication.
📌 Press • Social Reform
Q.10) To propagate his campaign against untouchability, Mahatma Gandhi launched which weekly journal in 1933?
Ans > Harijan
- The Poona Pact Context: Following the highly controversial Communal Award of 1932, which granted separate electorates to the depressed classes, Gandhi undertook a fast unto death in Yerwada Jail, resulting in the Poona Pact. After this intense political episode, he dramatically shifted his focus away from civil disobedience and entirely toward the urgent eradication of untouchability, which he viewed as a fatal stain on Hinduism.
- Launching the Journal: In February 1933, to spearhead this massive social crusade, he launched the weekly journal Harijan (meaning “Children of God,” the term he coined for Dalits). The journal effectively replaced his previous prominent publication, Young India. It was not just an English paper; to ensure maximum grassroots reach, he simultaneously launched editions in Hindi (Harijan Sevak) and Gujarati (Harijan Bandhu).
- The All-India Tour: The publication of Harijan coincided with his grueling, 20,000-kilometer nationwide “Harijan Tour.” Through the journal, Gandhi meticulously documented the horrific realities of untouchability, furiously advocated for temple entry rights for the depressed classes, heavily promoted village sanitation, and campaigned for the establishment of specialized schools under the newly formed Harijan Sevak Sangh.
📌 Press • Dalit Rights
Q.11) The fortnightly Marathi newspaper Mooknayak (Leader of the Voiceless), launched in 1920 to champion the rights of the depressed classes, was founded by whom?
Ans > Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
- A Platform for the Marginalized: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar launched the fortnightly Marathi newspaper Mooknayak on January 31, 1920. Frustrated by the upper-caste monopoly over the nationalist press—which deliberately ignored the horrific atrocities committed against Dalits—Ambedkar created this publication to give an independent, uncompromising voice to the absolutely marginalized and silenced depressed classes of India.
- Royal Patronage & Critique: The launch of the newspaper was made possible by crucial financial assistance from Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj, the progressive ruler of Kolhapur. In its very first editorial, Ambedkar brilliantly compared Hindu society to a deeply flawed, multi-story tower with absolutely no staircase connecting the floors, beautifully symbolizing the rigid, inescapable, and suffocating nature of the hereditary caste system.
- Foundation of a Movement: Mooknayak was deeply critical of both British imperial policies and orthodox Hindu societal norms. Although Ambedkar had to hand over the editorship when he left for higher studies in London, the paper successfully laid the intellectual foundation for his lifelong crusade, directly paving the way for his later, more aggressive publications like Bahishkrit Bharat (1927) and the historic Mahad Satyagraha.
📌 Press • Revolutionary Nationalism
Q.12) The Indian Sociologist, an Indian nationalist journal published in London in the early 1900s to promote revolutionary ideas, was started by whom?
Ans > Shyamji Krishna Varma
- Establishing the London Hub: Shyamji Krishna Varma, a highly educated patriot and Sanskrit scholar, launched The Indian Sociologist in London in 1905. In the same year, he founded the Indian Home Rule Society and the infamous ‘India House’ in Highgate, which rapidly became a massive safe haven, intellectual hub, and boarding house for radical Indian students and revolutionaries living abroad.
- Intellectual Justification for Rebellion: The journal brilliantly utilized the sociological theories of Herbert Spencer (whom Varma deeply admired) to systematically argue that the British rule in India was inherently tyrannical and that Indians possessed the absolute moral and legal right to resist it. It aggressively attacked the ‘mendicancy’ (petitioning) of moderate Congress leaders and openly advocated for complete, uncompromising independence.
- Flight from Prosecution: The publication heavily funded fellowships for radical students, including V.D. Savarkar and Madan Lal Dhingra. When Dhingra famously assassinated British official Sir William Hutt Curzon Wyllie in 1909, the British government initiated a massive crackdown on India House. Facing imminent arrest for sedition, Varma was forced to relocate the publication of The Indian Sociologist first to Paris (1907) and eventually to Geneva (1914).
📌 Press • Home Rule Movement
Q.13) The English weekly New India and the daily Commonweal, both instrumental in promoting the Home Rule Movement, were published by whom?
Ans > Annie Besant
- Theosophy to Politics: Annie Besant, initially known for her massive contributions to the Theosophical Society in Adyar, actively entered the Indian political arena during World War I. To heavily propagate her political ideology, she started the weekly Commonweal in 1914 and shortly after acquired the Madras Standard, boldly renaming it New India to serve as her primary daily mouthpiece.
- The Home Rule Campaign: Through these incredibly popular journals, she launched a ferocious, nationwide agitation demanding “Home Rule” (Dominion Status) for India, modeled exactly on the lines of white colonies like Canada and Australia. The papers fiercely argued that “England’s need is India’s opportunity” during the war, aggressively pressing the British government to grant self-government as a reward for Indian military support.
- Internment and Presidency: The relentless, fiery editorials in New India infuriated the Madras Government, leading to heavy fines under the draconian Press Act and her eventual high-profile internment in Ooty in 1917. This arrest caused a massive national uproar, making her incredibly popular and directly resulting in her election as the very first woman President of the Indian National Congress at the 1917 Calcutta session.
📌 Press • Peasant Movements
Q.14) The Hindi newspaper Pratap, which fearlessly supported the peasant movements and revolutionary activities in the United Provinces, was founded by which journalist?
Ans > Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi
- Voice of the Oppressed: Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi, a fiercely independent and deeply courageous journalist, founded the Hindi newspaper Pratap from Kanpur in 1913. The paper quickly emerged as the most powerful, uncompromising voice for the oppressed in northern India, heavily championing the causes of the brutally exploited Awadh peasantry and the striking textile mill workers of Kanpur.
- Support for Revolutionaries: Pratap was not just a peasant mouthpiece; it was a massive, secretive supporter of the armed revolutionary movement. Vidyarthi provided crucial shelter and financial aid to members of the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA). Notably, the legendary revolutionary Bhagat Singh worked at the Pratap press and frequently wrote highly inflammatory articles for the paper under the pseudonym ‘Balwant’.
- Censorship and Martyrdom: Because of its fearless reporting on police atrocities and its support for the famous Bijolia peasant movement in Rajasthan, Pratap faced severe, continuous harassment, heavy fines, and multiple bans under the draconian British press laws. Tragically, Vidyarthi’s life was cut short when he was brutally murdered in 1931 while heroically trying to rescue innocent people during the horrific Kanpur communal riots.
📌 Press • Political Dynamics
Q.15) The English newspaper The Independent was started in 1919 in Allahabad to counter the moderate political stance of The Leader. Who was its founder?
Ans > Motilal Nehru
- Ideological Shift in Allahabad: In 1919, the prominent lawyer and nationalist Motilal Nehru launched the English daily The Independent from Allahabad. This was a direct, highly strategic move to aggressively counter the established newspaper The Leader, which was run by the moderate stalwart Madan Mohan Malaviya, whose cautious political stance Nehru heavily disagreed with during the explosive post-World War I era.
- Voice of Non-Cooperation: Under the initial editorship of the brilliant Syud Hossain, The Independent quickly became the premier voice of the radical nationalist wing in the United Provinces. It played a massive, instrumental role in popularizing the ideals of the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation movements, vehemently criticizing the Rowlatt Act and the horrors of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
- Struggle and Closure: The newspaper constantly drew the wrath of the British administration for its fiery, anti-imperialist editorials. Despite facing severe, crippling financial penalties under the strict press laws and the frequent imprisonment of its editorial staff (including Motilal and Jawaharlal Nehru), it struggled to survive through the early 1920s before mounting debts and government suppression forced its permanent closure.
📌 Commissions & Acts • Labour
Q.16) The First Indian Factory Act (1881), which aimed to improve the working conditions of child laborers, was passed during the viceroyalty of whom?
Ans > Lord Ripon
- The Catalyst for Legislation: Passed during the liberal viceroyalty of Lord Ripon in 1881, the First Indian Factory Act was heavily pushed by philanthropists in India (like S.S. Bengalee) and significantly pressured by Lancashire textile manufacturers in Britain, who were deeply anxious about the cheap labor advantage enjoyed by the rapidly growing Indian cotton mills in Bombay.
- Focus on Child Labor: The Act was incredibly narrow in its scope, focusing almost entirely on the horrific exploitation of child labor. It absolutely prohibited the employment of children below the age of 7. For children between the ages of 7 and 12, their working hours were strictly limited to 9 hours a day, and they were legally mandated to receive at least 4 holidays per month.
- Limitations and Loopholes: The legislation was deeply flawed. It only applied to large factories employing more than 100 workers and utilizing mechanical power. Crucially, it completely ignored the British-owned tea and coffee plantations in Assam, where working conditions were arguably much worse. Furthermore, it did absolutely nothing to regulate the grueling working hours of adult male or female workers.
📌 Commissions & Acts • Labour
Q.17) The Whitley Commission, formally known as the Royal Commission on Labour, was appointed in 1929 to investigate which specific issue in India?
Ans > The working conditions in industrial plantations and factories
- Background of Unrest: The late 1920s witnessed a massive, unprecedented wave of industrial unrest across India, heavily fueled by the rise of the All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC, est. 1920) and growing communist influence (evident in the massive 1928 Bombay textile strike). In response to this explosive situation, the British government appointed the Royal Commission on Labour in 1929, chaired by John Henry Whitley.
- Comprehensive Investigation: The Whitley Commission was explicitly tasked with conducting an exhaustive, nationwide inquiry into the existing conditions of labor in industrial undertakings, mines, and sprawling tea plantations. Its monumental report, submitted in 1931, shockingly exposed the brutal reality of Indian labor: horrific indebtedness, abysmal sanitation, non-existent housing, and the widespread, corrupt practices of jobbers (labor contractors).
- Legislative Impact: The commission’s sweeping recommendations fundamentally altered Indian labor law. It directly led to the passing of several crucial, pro-worker legislations in the 1930s, most notably the Payment of Wages Act (1936), which strictly regulated deductions and delays in salary. It also forced major amendments to the existing Factory Acts, significantly reducing weekly working hours and improving workplace safety standards.
📌 Commissions & Acts • Famine
Q.18) Following the devastating famines of 1899-1900, Lord Curzon appointed a commission to recommend improvements in famine relief. Who chaired this commission?
Ans > Sir Antony MacDonnell
- The “Chhappaniya Akal”: The catastrophic famine of 1899-1900 (known locally as the Chhappaniya Akal due to the Vikram Samvat year 1956) ravaged massive parts of western and central India, causing millions of deaths. Horrified by the immense scale of the disaster and the utter failure of the existing relief mechanisms, Viceroy Lord Curzon appointed a high-level commission in 1900 chaired by Sir Antony MacDonnell.
- The Shift to “Moral Strategy”: The MacDonnell Commission’s report was groundbreaking because it shifted the government’s approach from merely providing reactive relief to actively implementing preventive measures—a concept it termed the “moral strategy.” It heavily emphasized that the government must anticipate famines early by closely monitoring rainfall and crop failures, rather than waiting for mass starvation to begin.
- Long-Term Recommendations: The commission strongly recommended a highly flexible approach to land revenue collection (allowing for total suspension during droughts). Furthermore, it heavily prioritized the massive expansion of protective agricultural irrigation networks over the building of strategic railways. Crucially, it recommended the establishment of agricultural banks to provide cheap credit to peasants, directly laying the groundwork for the Co-operative Credit Societies Act of 1904.
📌 Commissions & Acts • Administration
Q.19) The Aitchison Commission, appointed in 1886 by Lord Dufferin, dealt with reforms in which sector of the British Indian administration?
Ans > The Civil Services
- Nationalist Demands: Since its inception in 1885, the primary political demand of the Indian National Congress was the Indianization of the higher administration. They furiously demanded that the prestigious Indian Civil Service (ICS) examinations be held simultaneously in England and India, and that the discriminatory maximum age limit be raised to allow Indian candidates a fair chance.
- Formation and Rejection: To address this massive political pressure, Viceroy Lord Dufferin appointed the Public Service Commission in 1886, chaired by Sir Charles Aitchison. However, the commission firmly rejected the core nationalist demand for simultaneous examinations in India and London, arguing it would compromise the ‘British character’ of the administration.
- Structural Overhaul: Despite rejecting simultaneous exams, the commission introduced significant structural changes. It recommended dropping the divisive terms ‘Covenanted’ and ‘Uncovenanted’. Instead, it re-classified the administration into three distinct tiers: the Imperial Civil Service (recruited strictly in England), the Provincial Civil Service (recruited in India), and the Subordinate Civil Service. Crucially, it also recommended raising the maximum age limit for candidates to 23 years.
📌 Commissions & Acts • Education
Q.20) The Sadler Commission (1917–1919) was originally appointed by the British Government to study and report on the problems of which specific institution?
Ans > Calcutta University
- The Crisis of Overcrowding: By the early 20th century, Calcutta University had become a massively bloated, heavily centralized affiliating institution, struggling to manage hundreds of far-flung colleges and tens of thousands of students. In 1917, the British government appointed a commission under the chairmanship of Dr. Michael Sadler (Vice-Chancellor of Leeds University) to deeply investigate and resolve these crippling structural problems.
- The 10+2+3 Concept: Although specifically targeting Calcutta, the Sadler Commission’s brilliant recommendations fundamentally shaped the entire modern Indian educational framework. It famously recommended separating intermediate (high school) education from degree colleges by establishing independent Boards of Secondary and Intermediate Education. Furthermore, it firmly proposed that university education should consist of a dedicated 3-year degree course.
- Shift to Teaching Universities: The commission heavily criticized the old system where universities merely conducted exams. It strongly advocated for the creation of concentrated, unitary, residential, and teaching universities (like the ones subsequently established in Aligarh, Banaras, and Lucknow). Additionally, it placed massive emphasis on promoting female education, establishing departments of education, and expanding applied scientific and technological research.
📌 Commissions & Acts • Rural Economy
Q.21) The Maclagan Committee (1914) was appointed to review the progress and suggest improvements for which emerging sector in rural India?
Ans > Co-operative Societies
- Evaluating the Early Movement: Following the passing of the Co-operative Credit Societies Act (1904) and its expanded version in 1912, thousands of rural credit societies sprang up across India to combat the crippling plague of rural indebtedness to money-lenders. In 1914, the government appointed the Maclagan Committee to critically assess the actual financial health and grassroots progress of this rapidly expanding movement.
- Exposing Structural Flaws: The committee’s report highlighted severe, fundamental weaknesses in the system. It discovered that rather than being used for productive agricultural improvements, loans were frequently being squandered on non-productive social consumption (like weddings). It also noted poor auditing practices, weak financial reserves, and the dangerous dominance of these societies by a few wealthy rural elites.
- Recommendations for Survival: To prevent the entire movement from collapsing into a cheap money-lending scheme, the Maclagan Committee heavily emphasized quality over rapid quantity. It strictly recommended rigorous external financial auditing, the building up of robust reserve funds, and most importantly, massive campaigns for cooperative education to instill genuine democratic management and self-reliance among the peasant members.
📌 Economic Critique • Home Charges
Q.22) During the colonial era, the phrase “Home Charges” frequently appeared in nationalist critiques. What did this term primarily refer to?
Ans > The remittance of funds from India to Britain for administrative and debt expenses
- The Core of the Drain Theory: The concept of “Home Charges” formed the absolute, undeniable core of the “Drain of Wealth” theory popularized by Dadabhai Naoroji and R.C. Dutt. These were massive, mandatory annual payments made directly from Indian tax revenues to the Secretary of State stationed in London, representing a huge, uncompensated transfer of wealth out of the subcontinent.
- What Did It Pay For?: The charges covered a highly unjust list of expenses. This included massive guaranteed dividends to the original shareholders of the East India Company, the exorbitant interest on public debt and railways raised in England, the generous civil and military pensions of retired British officers, and the entire operational cost of maintaining the India Office in London.
- Economic Devastation: To physically pay these sterling obligations in London, India was forced to generate a massive export surplus (selling raw materials cheaply). Because this export surplus brought no return of wealth or capital goods back to India, it was termed “unrequited exports.” This relentless drain completely stunted domestic capital formation, destroyed indigenous industries, and plunged the peasantry into inescapable poverty.
📌 Peasant Movements • Awadh
Q.23) The Eka Movement (1921–22) was a major peasant uprising in the Awadh region primarily demanding the conversion of produce rent into cash rent. Who was its most prominent grassroots leader?
Ans > Madari Pasi
- The Roots of the Revolt: The Eka (Unity) movement erupted in late 1921 in the northern districts of the United Provinces (primarily Hardoi, Bahraich, and Sitapur). The peasantry was pushed to the brink of starvation because cruel landlords and their contractors (thekadars) were illegally extracting rent that was often 50% higher than the officially recorded rates, alongside demanding begar (unpaid forced labor).
- Grassroots Leadership: Unlike earlier movements led by urban politicians, the Eka movement saw the rise of fierce, authentic grassroots leadership. It was masterminded by Madari Pasi, a leader belonging to a marginalized low caste. Under his radical direction, the movement aggressively bypassed the moderate Congress leadership and took on a highly militant, uncompromising character.
- The Ritual of Unity: The movement was famous for its deeply symbolic religious rituals. Peasants would gather at the riverbank, place a holy saligram on the ground, and take a solemn oath (Eka). They swore to pay only the officially recorded rent in cash, completely refuse forced labor, resist illegal evictions, and boycott British colonial courts in favor of resolving disputes in their own local panchayats. By 1922, it was brutally suppressed by the police.
📌 Peasant Movements • National
Q.24) The All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS), established to coordinate peasant movements across the country, held its first session in 1936 in which city?
Ans > Lucknow
- A Unified Agrarian Front: During the 1930s, peasant unrest exploded across India due to the devastating economic effects of the Great Depression. However, these movements (like the Kisan Sabhas in Bihar and UP) were highly fragmented. To consolidate this massive rural anger into a unified, national anti-imperialist force, the All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS) was officially formed.
- The Historic 1936 Session: The AIKS strategically held its very first, historic session in Lucknow in April 1936. This perfectly coincided with the annual session of the Indian National Congress being held in the exact same city, presided over by Jawaharlal Nehru, highlighting the powerful, growing influence of left-wing and socialist ideologies within the broader nationalist movement.
- The Kisan Manifesto: At this founding session, the AIKS boldly issued the ‘Kisan Manifesto’. This radical document demanded a massive 50% reduction in land revenue and rent, the complete scaling down of crushing rural debts, the provision of cheap institutional credit, and, most importantly, the absolute abolition of the exploitative Zamindari system. These demands deeply influenced the Congress’s own agrarian program adopted at the Faizpur session later that year.
📌 Peasant Movements • Leadership
Q.25) Who was elected as the first President of the All India Kisan Sabha at its founding session in 1936?
Ans > Swami Sahajanand Saraswati
- The Ascetic Revolutionary: Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, originally a traditional Dandi sanyasi (ascetic), transformed into one of the most formidable, firebrand peasant leaders in modern Indian history. He had already demonstrated his massive organizing capability by founding the highly militant Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha in 1929 to mobilize peasants against zamindari atrocities.
- Leading the National Front: Recognizing his unparalleled influence over the rural masses, he was unanimously elected as the very first President of the newly formed All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS) at the 1936 Lucknow session, with the prominent Andhra leader N.G. Ranga serving as the General Secretary. Under his dynamic leadership, the peasant movement took a sharply radical turn.
- Ideological Shift: Initially a staunch Gandhian who firmly believed in class harmony, his direct, horrific experiences with landlord violence caused him to fundamentally shift his ideology. He eventually embraced Marxist class-struggle rhetoric. He famously and aggressively opposed the newly elected Congress ministries (1937-1939) when they hesitated to pass radical pro-peasant legislation, declaring that the peasants’ only true weapon was the ‘Danda’ (stick).
📌 Peasant Movements • Bihar
Q.26) The Bakasht land movement, an agrarian struggle demanding the restoration of lands to tenants who were evicted during the Depression, primarily took place in which province?
Ans > Bihar
- The Crisis of Eviction: During the massive global economic depression of the 1930s, agricultural prices crashed, leaving thousands of occupancy tenants in Bihar completely unable to pay their rent. Ruthless Zamindars used this as an excuse to illegally evict them and ‘resume’ the lands, deliberately classifying these plots as Bakasht (meaning ‘self-cultivated’ by the landlord) to permanently strip the tenants of their hereditary rights.
- The Fierce Struggle (1937-1939): When the Congress ministry took power in Bihar in 1937, the peasants expected immediate justice. When the government hesitated, the Bihar Kisan Sabha, fiercely led by Swami Sahajanand Saraswati and Karyanand Sharma, launched a highly militant Satyagraha. Peasants physically occupied the Bakasht lands, braved brutal police lathi charges, and forcibly harvested the crops they had planted.
- Legislative Victory: The sheer intensity, violence, and scale of the agitation forced the deeply embarrassed Congress ministry to finally act. They passed the Bihar Tenancy Amendment Act and the Bakasht Land Disputes Settlement Act, which established arbitration boards that successfully restored thousands of acres of unjustly confiscated land back to the desperate tenant farmers.
📌 Peasant Movements • Bengal
Q.27) The militant Tebhaga Movement (1946) was an uprising by sharecroppers (bargadars) demanding a two-thirds share of the harvest. In which province did this movement originate?
Ans > Bengal
- The Exploitative System: In undivided Bengal, the agricultural system was heavily dominated by the Barga system. The sharecroppers (known locally as Bargadars or Adhiars) provided all the labor, seeds, and cattle, yet were forced to hand over a massive 50% (half) of their hard-earned harvest to the wealthy absentee landlords known as Jotedars, keeping them in perpetual, crushing poverty.
- The Demand for Tebhaga: The massive uprising was sparked when the government’s own Floud Commission (1940) officially recommended that the sharecropper’s portion should rightfully be increased to two-thirds. In late 1946, organized fiercely by the Communist-led Bengal Provincial Kisan Sabha, the peasants raised the revolutionary slogan “Tebhaga chai” (We want two-thirds share).
- Militant Tactics and Women’s Role: The movement was highly militant. Instead of taking the harvested paddy to the landlord’s threshing floor (where they were easily cheated), the armed peasants forcibly took the entire crop to their own khamars (yards). The uprising is particularly famous for the massive, heroic participation of women, who formed the Nari Bahini (women’s squads) to physically fight off the armed goons of the landlords and the heavily armed British police.
📌 Peasant Movements • Armed Struggle
Q.28) The massive Telangana Peasant Armed Struggle (1946-1951), led by the communists, was an uprising against the oppressive deshmukhs (landlords) and the autocratic rule of whom?
Ans > The Nizam of Hyderabad
- The Feudal Nightmare: The princely state of Hyderabad, ruled autocratically by the Nizam, was characterized by arguably the most brutal, medieval feudal system in India. Massive tracts of land were controlled by a few incredibly wealthy landlords (Deshmukhs and Jagirdars), who routinely subjected the lower-caste peasantry to vetti (unpaid forced labor), illegal evictions, and horrific physical torture.
- The Communist Guerrilla War: Sparked by the murder of a local peasant leader in 1946, the anger exploded into a massive, highly organized armed rebellion heavily guided by the Communist Party of India (CPI). The peasants formed armed guerrilla squads, fiercely fought against both the landlords’ goons and the Nizam’s terrifying private fundamentalist militia known as the Razakars.
- Redistribution and Intervention: At its absolute peak, the armed struggle successfully “liberated” nearly 3,000 villages across Telangana. The communists established parallel local governments (Gram Rajyams), canceled all peasant debts, and dramatically redistributed over a million acres of landlord territory to the landless poor. The rebellion only ended after the newly independent Indian Army annexed Hyderabad (Operation Polo, 1948) and subsequently suppressed the communist squads.
📌 Peasant Movements • Malabar
Q.29) The Moplah Rebellion of 1921 was an intense agrarian uprising by Muslim tenants against Hindu landlords (jenmis) and the British state. In which region did this occur?
Ans > Malabar (Kerala)
- Agrarian Roots of the Conflict: In the South Malabar region of present-day Kerala, the agricultural system was heavily skewed. The majority of the tenants and landless laborers were Mappilas (Moplahs), who were Muslims. They suffered terrible economic exploitation—insecure tenancies and exorbitant rents—at the hands of the wealthy, high-caste Hindu landlords known as Jenmis, who were strongly protected by the British colonial courts.
- The Khilafat Spark: The deep agrarian grievances merged explosively with the ongoing Khilafat and Non-Cooperation movements in 1921. When the British police violently arrested prominent Khilafat leaders like Ali Musliyar and attempted to raid a mosque, the region completely erupted. What started as a massive anti-imperialist and anti-landlord revolt quickly saw the Moplahs effectively overthrowing the British administration in several talukas for months.
- Communal Turn and Brutal Suppression: Tragically, as the British cracked down, the rebellion lost its secular leadership and degenerated into horrific communal violence, with armed Moplah bands attacking Hindu landlords, forcibly converting them, and destroying temples. The British ultimately crushed the rebellion with extreme, indiscriminate military brutality, culminating in the horrific “Wagon Tragedy,” where nearly 70 Moplah prisoners suffocated to death in a closed railway freight wagon.
📌 Peasant Movements • Non-Tax
Q.30) The Bardoli Satyagraha (1928), a highly successful no-tax campaign, was masterminded by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel in which present-day state?
Ans > Gujarat
- The Unjust Tax Hike: In 1925, the Bardoli taluka in the Surat district of Gujarat was hit by severe floods and subsequent crop failures. Despite the massive economic distress and falling cotton prices, the British Bombay Presidency arbitrarily and callously raised the land revenue assessment by a staggering 22%. When all petitions failed, the desperate peasants approached Vallabhbhai Patel to lead a mass agitation.
- Masterful Organization: Patel agreed only after the peasants took a solemn religious oath to remain completely non-violent. He displayed sheer organizational genius, dividing the taluka into 13 strict workers’ camps (Chhavanis). He brilliantly utilized local caste associations, enlisted massive participation from women, and published a daily bulletin to keep morale high. The peasants launched a total, uncompromising refusal to pay the tax.
- Victory and the “Sardar” Title: The government retaliated brutally by confiscating lands and cattle, but the peasants stood rock solid, utilizing strict social boycotts against anyone who paid the tax or bought confiscated property. Eventually, the humiliated British government backed down, appointing the Maxwell-Broomfield commission which concluded the hike was unjustified and reduced it to a mere 6.03%. It was after this stunning victory that the women of Bardoli bestowed upon Patel the legendary title of “Sardar” (Leader).
📌 Quick Summary — Modern History Set 74
- Literature: Satyarth Prakash was authored by Swami Dayanand Saraswati.
- Social Reform Books: Jyotiba Phule wrote Gulamgiri (1873) against the caste system.
- Economic Critique: Romesh Chandra Dutt authored Economic History of India.
- Pioneering Press: G. Subramaniya Iyer was a founder of The Hindu (1878).
- Marathi Press: Gopal Ganesh Agarkar founded Sudharak to push social reform.
- English Dailies: Pherozeshah Mehta started The Bombay Chronicle (1910).
- Economic Drain: Dadabhai Naoroji championed the Voice of India.
- Radical Press: Bipin Chandra Pal launched the English paper Bande Mataram (1906).
- Revolutionary Press: Yugantar was started by Bhupendranath Datta & Barindra Ghosh.
- Anti-Untouchability: Mahatma Gandhi started the weekly Harijan in 1933.
- Dalit Rights: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar launched Mooknayak in 1920.
- Overseas Nationalism: Shyamji Krishna Varma founded The Indian Sociologist in London.
- Home Rule: Annie Besant published New India and Commonweal.
- Hindi Journalism: Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi started Pratap from Kanpur.
- Political Alternatives: Motilal Nehru founded The Independent in Allahabad.
- Labor Laws: Lord Ripon passed the First Factory Act (1881) for child workers.
- Labor Conditions: The Whitley Commission (1929) investigated factories/plantations.
- Famine Relief: Sir Antony MacDonnell headed the 1900 famine commission.
- Administration: Aitchison Commission (1886) dealt with Civil Services.
- Education: Sadler Commission (1917) reviewed Calcutta University.
- Rural Economy: Maclagan Committee (1914) reviewed Co-operative Societies.
- Economic Drain: ‘Home Charges’ meant remittances from India to Britain.
- Peasant Uprisings: Madari Pasi led the Eka Movement in Awadh.
- National Coordination: AIKS held its first session in Lucknow (1936).
- Kisan Leadership: Swami Sahajanand Saraswati was the first President of AIKS.
- Tenant Struggles: The Bakasht movement occurred in Bihar against eviction.
- Sharecroppers: Tebhaga Movement (1946) originated in Bengal for 2/3 harvest share.
- Armed Struggles: Telangana uprising was against the Nizam of Hyderabad.
- Agrarian Rebellion: The Moplah Rebellion occurred in Malabar, Kerala (1921).
- No-Tax Campaigns: Sardar Patel masterminded the Bardoli Satyagraha in Gujarat.
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