Modern History Set 71
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π Revolutionaries β’ Societies
Q.1) The secret revolutionary society ‘Abhinav Bharat’ was organized in 1904 as a transformation of the Mitra Mela. Who was its founder?
Ans > V.D. Savarkar
- Origins in Mitra Mela: Vinayak Damodar Savarkar and his brother Ganesh Savarkar initially founded the ‘Mitra Mela’ in Nasik in 1899. It served as a front for their early nationalist organizing and physical training.
- Transformation to Abhinav Bharat: In 1904, heavily inspired by Giuseppe Mazzini’s “Young Italy” and his revolutionary methods, the organization was renamed and restructured into the secret revolutionary society known as Abhinav Bharat (Young India Society).
- Ideology and Expansion: The society aimed at absolute political independence for India, achieved through an armed rebellion against British colonial rule. It quickly expanded its network, establishing numerous covert branches across western India and Central Provinces.
- Global Reach and Impact: V.D. Savarkar later moved to London to study law and expanded the society’s activities there, procuring arms and manuals on bomb-making. The organization was responsible for several high-profile assassinations, including the killing of A.M.T. Jackson, the British District Magistrate of Nasik, in 1909, which led to the famous Nasik Conspiracy Case and the eventual banning of the society.
π Revolutionaries β’ Bengal
Q.2) The ‘Anushilan Samiti’, one of the most prominent revolutionary organizations in Bengal, was established in 1902 by whom?
Ans > Pramathanath Mitra and Barindra Kumar Ghosh
- Founding Figureheads: The Anushilan Samiti was established in Calcutta on March 24, 1902, primarily by the prominent barrister Pramathanath Mitra (P. Mitra). It received massive ideological and organizational support from visionary figures like Aurobindo Ghosh, Barindra Kumar Ghosh, and Jatindranath Banerjee.
- Fitness and Revolution: Initially functioning under the benign guise of local fitness clubs and akhadas (gymnasiums), the Samiti quickly evolved into a sophisticated underground organization. It trained young Bengali men in revolutionary ideology, advanced bomb-making techniques, and the use of firearms.
- The Dhaka Chapter: In 1906, the Dhaka Anushilan Samiti was founded by Pulin Behari Das. This branch became incredibly powerful, boasting hundreds of affiliated clubs across East Bengal and executing daring political dacoities (robberies) to fund their armed struggle.
- The Alipore Bomb Case: The Samiti’s activities reached a climax with the Muzaffarpur bombing in 1908, leading to the massive Alipore Bomb Conspiracy Case. This resulted in the arrest of top leaders, including Aurobindo Ghosh, significantly altering the course of the revolutionary movement in Bengal.
π Revolutionaries β’ HSRA
Q.3) In 1929, to protest against the draconian Public Safety Bill and the Trade Dispute Act, who hurled a harmless bomb in the Central Legislative Assembly alongside Bhagat Singh?
Ans > Batukeshwar Dutt
- The Incident and Its Execution: On April 8, 1929, Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt boldly threw low-intensity, non-lethal bombs from the visitors’ gallery into the Central Legislative Assembly in Delhi. They intentionally threw the explosives in vacant spaces to ensure no lives were lost, demonstrating absolute control over their protest.
- “To Make the Deaf Hear”: Their objective was clearly stated in the leaflets they showered in the assembly. The act was a dramatic protest against the passage of two highly repressive pieces of legislation: the Public Safety Bill and the Trade Dispute Act, which were designed to severely curtail civil liberties and crush the emerging labor union movement in India.
- Courting Arrest for the Cause: True to the ideology of the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA), they did not flee the scene. Instead, they willingly courted arrest, famously shouting slogans like “Inquilab Zindabad” (Long Live the Revolution) and “Down with Imperialism.”
- The Historic Trial: The subsequent trial became a massive public platform for Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt to articulate their anti-imperialist, socialist ideology to the Indian masses, transforming them into legendary national heroes and redefining the nationalist struggle.
π Revolutionaries β’ Bengal
Q.4) The daring Chittagong Armoury Raid of 1930, which aimed to seize arms and disrupt British communication lines, was masterminded by which revolutionary leader?
Ans > Surya Sen
- Master Da’s Leadership: Affectionately known as “Master Da” due to his profession as a school teacher, Surya Sen orchestrated the highly ambitious and brilliantly planned raid on the British police and auxiliary forces’ armouries in Chittagong (now in modern-day Bangladesh) on the night of April 18, 1930.
- Indian Republican Army: Organizing his dedicated young followers under the banner of the ‘Indian Republican Army, Chittagong Branch,’ Sen successfully executed a multi-pronged attack. The revolutionaries captured the armouries, cut vital telegraph and telephone lines to isolate the town, and temporarily declared a provisional revolutionary government.
- Role of Women Revolutionaries: A highly unique aspect of this uprising was the prominent, combat-ready inclusion of fearless women revolutionaries like Pritilata Waddedar and Kalpana Datta, who played crucial roles in logistics and subsequent attacks.
- The Battle of Jalalabad: Following the raid, the revolutionaries retreated to the Jalalabad Hills where they engaged in a fierce, unequal gun battle with thousands of heavily armed British troops. Although many young martyrs fell, Surya Sen managed to evade capture for three years before being betrayed, captured, and brutally hanged in 1934.
π Revolutionaries β’ Global Actions
Q.5) In 1940, which Indian revolutionary assassinated General Michael O’Dwyer in London to avenge the Jallianwala Bagh massacre?
Ans > Udham Singh
- The Vow of Revenge: Udham Singh, deeply traumatized and scarred by the horrific 1919 Jallianwala Bagh massacre in Amritsar, took a solemn vow to avenge the innocent lives lost. He spent over two decades meticulously tracking down Michael O’Dwyer, the former Lieutenant Governor of Punjab who had explicitly endorsed General Reginald Dyer’s brutal actions.
- The Caxton Hall Assassination: On March 13, 1940, Singh finally executed his long-awaited revenge. During a joint meeting of the East India Association and the Central Asian Society at Caxton Hall in London, he drew a concealed revolver and shot O’Dwyer dead, instantly making international headlines.
- Trial and Martyrdom: Udham Singh made no attempt to escape the hall. During his high-profile trial, he famously used the alias “Ram Mohammad Singh Azad,” powerfully symbolizing the absolute unity of all Indian religions against British imperialism.
- Legacy of Shaheed-i-Azam: He was convicted of murder and hanged at Pentonville Prison on July 31, 1940. Today, he is revered across India as ‘Shaheed-i-Azam’ (Great Martyr), and his assassination of O’Dwyer is often viewed as a justifiable act of national retribution for one of the darkest chapters of colonial rule.
π Revolutionaries β’ Expatriate Movements
Q.6) The Ghadar Party, an international political movement founded by expatriate Indians to overthrow British rule in India, was headquartered in which city?
Ans > San Francisco
- Yugantar Ashram: The Ghadar Party, primarily composed of working-class Punjabi Sikh, Hindu, and Muslim immigrants along the Pacific Coast, established its headquarters in San Francisco, California, in 1913. The operational building was famously known as the ‘Yugantar Ashram’, serving as the nerve center for their anti-colonial operations.
- The Ghadar Journal: Under the brilliant intellectual leadership of figures like Lala Hardayal, Sohan Singh Bhakna, and Kartar Singh Sarabha, they published a fiery weekly paper called ‘Ghadar’ (meaning Revolt or Mutiny in Urdu). The journal openly called for an armed mutiny against the British Empire and was heavily circulated among Indian diaspora globally.
- The Komagata Maru Incident Context: The movement gained massive momentum following the tragic Komagata Maru incident in 1914, which exposed the racist immigration policies of the British Empire and deeply radicalized overseas Indians.
- The 1915 Mutiny Plan: With the outbreak of World War I, the Ghadarites saw an opportunity to liberate India while Britain was distracted. Thousands returned to India to ignite a pan-Indian sepoy mutiny in February 1915. However, the plot was betrayed by informants, leading to the Lahore Conspiracy Case trials and the mass execution of Ghadar heroes.
π Revolutionaries β’ Expatriate Movements
Q.7) In 1905, an Indian nationalist established the ‘India House’ in London as a hostel and a hub for revolutionary activities. Who was he?
Ans > Shyamji Krishna Varma
- A Hub for Radicals: Shyamji Krishna Varma, an affluent lawyer and staunch nationalist, founded ‘India House’ in Highgate, London in 1905. Ostensibly established as a student hostel to promote education, it quickly and effectively became the epicenter for overseas Indian radical nationalism and anti-colonial plotting.
- The Indian Sociologist: To propagate his revolutionary ideas, Varma also launched and published “The Indian Sociologist,” a powerful anti-colonial journal that provided a platform for fierce critique of British rule. He also instituted scholarships for Indian students, drawing the brightest minds to London.
- Mentoring Future Legends: India House became a crucial ideological training ground. It mentored future legendary revolutionaries including V.D. Savarkar (who wrote his famous book on the 1857 revolt there), Madan Lal Dhingra, Lala Hardayal, and Madam Cama.
- The Dhingra Assassination: The institution came under intense British surveillance, especially after Madan Lal Dhingra, a prominent member of India House, assassinated Sir William Hutt Curzon Wyllie in 1909. Following intense police crackdowns, Varma was forced to flee to Paris, but the legacy of India House had already permanently altered the revolutionary landscape.
π Revolutionaries β’ Symbols
Q.8) The pioneering revolutionary Madam Bhikaji Cama gained international fame for hoisting an early version of the Indian national flag in 1907. In which country did she do this?
Ans > Germany (Stuttgart)
- The Stuttgart Congress: Madam Bhikaji Cama, a staunch Parsi nationalist and a prominent figure in the overseas Indian independence movement, attended the second International Socialist Congress held in Stuttgart, Germany, in August 1907. She attended as a delegate representing the Indian people.
- The First Flag Unfurled: In a moment of immense historic significance, she boldly unfurled an early version of the Indian national flag before the international gathering. She passionately appealed for global support, calling it the “Flag of Indian Independence” and asking the delegates to stand in salute.
- Design of the Flag: The flag she designed (co-created with Shyamji Krishna Varma) was highly symbolic. It featured three horizontal stripes of green, saffron, and red. It included eight lotuses representing the eight provinces of British India, a crescent moon representing Muslims, and a sun representing Hindus, with “Vande Mataram” inscribed in Devanagari script.
- Mother of the Indian Revolution: By raising the flag on foreign soil, she successfully internationalized the Indian freedom struggle, exposing British atrocities to European socialists. Because of her relentless dedication, fiery journalism, and financial support for revolutionaries, she is universally revered as the “Mother of the Indian Revolution.”
π Revolutionaries β’ Assassination Plots
Q.9) In 1912, a daring assassination attempt was made on the Viceroy, Lord Hardinge, by throwing a bomb at his carriage in Delhi. Who was the mastermind behind this plot?
Ans > Rash Behari Bose
- The Delhi Conspiracy Case: On December 23, 1912, as Viceroy Lord Hardinge was entering the newly designated capital of Delhi in a grand, highly publicized state procession riding on an elephant, a homemade bomb was hurled at his howdah in the crowded Chandni Chowk area. The Viceroy was severely injured, and his attendant was killed, sending shockwaves through the British administration.
- The Mastermind’s Brilliance: The intricate assassination plot was masterminded by the veteran revolutionary Rash Behari Bose. He meticulously planned the attack, utilizing members of the Jugantar group and local Delhi revolutionaries like Basanta Kumar Biswas, who reportedly dressed as a woman to throw the bomb.
- The Great Escape: Following the intense police crackdown and the subsequent Delhi Conspiracy trials (which saw several revolutionaries hanged), Rash Behari Bose successfully evaded capture by the British intelligence for years through brilliant disguises and network hopping.
- Flight to Japan and the INA: Bose eventually fled India in 1915 and sought asylum in Japan. He continued his fierce anti-British activities from abroad, eventually playing a highly instrumental role in organizing the Indian Independence League and laying the foundational groundwork for the famous Indian National Army (INA), later handed over to Subhas Chandra Bose.
π Revolutionaries β’ HRA
Q.10) The Hindustan Republican Association (HRA), a revolutionary organization aiming to establish a federal republic of the United States of India, was formed in 1924 in which city?
Ans > Kanpur
- Founding in Kanpur: The Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) was officially founded in October 1924 during a highly secretive meeting in Kanpur. It was established by a coalition of prominent, battle-hardened revolutionaries including Ramprasad Bismil, Sachindra Nath Sanyal, and Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee, who were disillusioned by Gandhi’s sudden withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement.
- The Revolutionary Manifesto: The organization published a powerful manifesto titled “The Revolutionary.” It declared its ultimate, uncompromising goal: to utterly overthrow British imperialism through an organized, nationwide armed revolution and establish a “Federal Republic of the United States of India.”
- Commitment to Democracy: Unlike earlier secret societies, the HRA possessed a clear political vision. They envisioned a republic based on universal adult suffrage, socialist principles, and the absolute abolition of systems that allowed the exploitation of men by men.
- The Kakori Conspiracy: To fund their ambitious armed rebellion and procure sophisticated weapons, the HRA executed the famous Kakori Train Robbery in 1925, looting the British government treasury. However, the subsequent massive police crackdown decimated the first-generation leadership, leading to the martyrdom of Ramprasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan, and Roshan Singh.
π Revolutionaries β’ HSRA
Q.11) In 1928, the name of the HRA was changed to the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) to reflect a shift towards socialist ideology. Under whose leadership did this happen?
Ans > Chandrashekhar Azad
- The Ferozeshah Kotla Meeting: Following the devastating executions and mass arrests resulting from the Kakori Train Robbery case, the revolutionary organization was severely weakened and leaderless. In September 1928, the remaining younger members convened a crucial meeting at the ruins of Ferozeshah Kotla in Delhi to reorganize.
- The Socialist Ideological Shift: Under the formidable leadership of the elusive Chandrashekhar Azad, and heavily influenced by the deep Marxist readings and intellectual prowess of Bhagat Singh, the group made a momentous ideological shift. They explicitly added the word “Socialist” to their name, rebranding as the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA).
- Redefining the Struggle: This name change reflected a profound evolution in their philosophy. They realized that merely replacing British elites with Indian elites was insufficient; true freedom required a massive socio-economic overhaul, prioritizing class equality, labor rights, and the absolute elimination of capitalist exploitation alongside political independence.
- Action and Legacy: The HSRA moved away from individual assassinations towards mass awakening. Their subsequent actions, including the assassination of J.P. Saunders to avenge Lala Lajpat Rai and the Central Assembly Bombing, were highly strategic acts designed purely to spread their socialist-nationalist propaganda and awaken the Indian youth.
π Press β’ Vernacular Journals
Q.12) The influential Bengali newspaper Som Prakash, which actively supported the Indigo Revolt, was started by which prominent social reformer?
Ans > Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
- Launching the Journal: Som Prakash was a highly influential, hard-hitting Bengali weekly newspaper that commenced publication in 1858. It was started under the direct guidance, vision, and financial patronage of the legendary scholar and polymath social reformer, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, with Dwarkanath Vidyabhusan serving as its dynamic editor.
- Voice of the Oppressed: It played a pioneering, transformative role in Indian political journalism. It completely broke away from the traditional, polite literary style, famously championing the desperate cause of the brutally oppressed Indigo farmers (ryots) against the cruel exploitation by European planters during the historic Indigo Revolt (Nil Bidroho).
- Fierce Political Critique: Beyond the Indigo crisis, Som Prakash fearlessly criticized aggressive British imperial policies, the systemic corruption within the colonial police force, and the injustices of the landlord (zamindari) system. It educated the rural Bengali middle class on their fundamental political rights.
- Target of the Vernacular Press Act: Its massive popularity and biting anti-government stance made it a primary target of the British administration. When Lord Lytton enacted the draconian Vernacular Press Act in 1878 to silence regional media, Som Prakash was one of the first newspapers to be severely penalized and temporarily forced to halt publication.
π Press β’ Censorship
Q.13) In 1878, to escape the harsh provisions of the Vernacular Press Act, which famous Bengali nationalist newspaper was converted into an English-language daily overnight?
Ans > Amrita Bazar Patrika
- The Draconian Act: In 1878, Viceroy Lord Lytton introduced the infamous Vernacular Press Act. This draconian law was designed specifically to crush dissenting, anti-colonial voices in regional (non-English) Indian languages. It granted district magistrates sweeping powers to enforce strict censorship, demand heavy security deposits, and confiscate printing presses without any judicial recourse.
- A Brilliant Legal Loophole: The fiercely nationalist Bengali newspaper, Amrita Bazar Patrika (founded by the Ghosh brothers, Sisir Kumar and Motilal), was heavily targeted by this new law due to its stinging critiques of British policies. To survive, they executed a brilliantly cunning legal maneuver.
- The Overnight Transformation: Since the oppressive Act explicitly applied *only* to vernacular (regional language) publications, the publishers literally transformed the newspaper from a Bengali-English bilingual paper into an exclusively English-language daily overnight.
- Continuing the Resistance: By the time the British magistrates arrived with warrants to shut them down, the newspaper was fully in English, placing it outside the Act’s jurisdiction. This legendary act of defiance allowed them to continue their fierce nationalist journalism unhindered, humiliating the British administration and inspiring the Indian press.
π Press β’ Extremist Nationalism
Q.14) The nationalist journal Bande Mataram, which played a key role in articulating the philosophy of extremist nationalism, was edited by whom?
Ans > Aurobindo Ghosh
- The Voice of Swadeshi: Bande Mataram was an incredibly influential English-language nationalist daily, originally founded in 1906 by the prominent leader Bipin Chandra Pal. However, its editorial charge was rapidly taken over by the brilliant intellectual and revolutionary, Aurobindo Ghosh.
- Defining Radical Nationalism: Under Ghosh’s masterful and fiery penmanship, the journal became the absolute foremost voice of the ‘Extremist’ faction of the Indian National Congress during the turbulent Swadeshi Movement. It fundamentally shifted the political discourse of the era.
- Demand for Purna Swaraj: Unlike the ‘Moderate’ leaders who merely begged for administrative reforms and dominion status, Bande Mataram explicitly and loudly demanded *Purna Swaraj* (complete, unadulterated independence) from the British Empire, arguing it was the absolute birthright of every Indian.
- Passive Resistance Strategy: The journal systematically laid out the sophisticated doctrine of “Passive Resistance”βadvocating for the total boycott of British goods, British courts, and British educational institutions long before Mahatma Gandhi utilized similar methods. Despite facing severe sedition trials, Aurobindo’s brilliant legal maneuvering often saved the paper from closure, cementing its legendary status.
π Press β’ Urdu Journalism
Q.15) The highly influential Urdu weekly Al Hilal, which forged Hindu-Muslim unity and criticized British loyalism, was launched in 1912 by whom?
Ans > Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
- A New Muslim Voice: Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, an exceptionally brilliant Islamic scholar, theologian, and staunch nationalist, started the highly influential Urdu weekly newspaper ‘Al Hilal’ (The Crescent) in Calcutta in 1912.
- Challenging the Status Quo: The journal marked a massive, radical departure from the pro-British, loyalist stance previously advocated by conservative Muslim leaders (like the Aligarh movement). Azad used his profound knowledge of the Quran to vehemently argue that Islam fundamentally opposed colonialism and oppression.
- Forging National Unity: Al Hilal fiercely urged the Indian Muslim community to completely abandon their political isolationism and actively join hands with their Hindu brethren in the mainstream nationalist struggle for freedom. It was instrumental in building the ideological foundation for Hindu-Muslim political unity during the Khilafat Movement.
- Censorship and Banning: The newspaper’s electrifying prose, high literary quality, and fierce anti-imperialist rhetoric gained it a massive circulation of over 25,000 within two years. Naturally, it heavily alarmed the British authorities, who confiscated its security deposits and ultimately banned ‘Al Hilal’ in 1914 under the Press Act, forcing Azad to start another journal, ‘Al Balagh’.
π British Policy β’ Law
Q.16) The First Law Commission of India was established in 1834. Which British official chaired this commission and is primarily credited with drafting the Indian Penal Code (IPC)?
Ans > Lord Macaulay
- The Charter Act of 1833: The establishment of the First Law Commission of India was formally mandated by the pivotal Charter Act of 1833. Lord Thomas Babington Macaulay, a prominent British historian and politician, was appointed as its first Chairman and the first Law Member of the Governor-General’s Council.
- The Need for Codification: Before this commission, the Indian legal system was a chaotic, often contradictory mixture of English Common Law, Hindu personal laws (Dharmashastras), and Islamic laws (Sharia), varying wildly by region. Macaulay’s monumental task was to strictly codify and standardize this immense legal labyrinth.
- Drafting the IPC: Macaulay’s most enduring and massive legacy is the drafting of the Indian Penal Code (IPC). He drew heavy inspiration from English law but simplified it, removing archaic idiosyncrasies.
- Enduring Legal Framework: Although drafted in 1837, the IPC was finally enacted in 1860, fundamentally shaping the modern Indian judicial system. Macaulay’s meticulous work forms the absolute bedrock of criminal law not just in India, but in several other former British colonies like Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Singapore.
π Education β’ British Policy
Q.17) Wood’s Despatch (1854) recommended a comprehensive system of education for India, including the establishment of universities in Presidency towns. These universities were to be modeled on which institution?
Ans > London University
- The Magna Carta of Indian Education: Sir Charles Wood, the President of the Board of Control, sent a landmark despatch to Lord Dalhousie in 1854. This document is widely considered the “Magna Carta of English Education in India” because it created the first structured, top-down, comprehensive template for a modern educational system in the subcontinent.
- The University Model: The most significant recommendation was the establishment of fully-fledged universities in the major Presidency towns of Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras (which were subsequently established in 1857).
- Affiliating, Not Teaching: These newly created universities were strictly modeled on the structure of London University at the time. This meant they were purely affiliating and examining bodies; they did not conduct any direct teaching themselves. They merely set the curriculum, conducted examinations, and awarded degrees to students studying in affiliated colleges.
- Systemic Hierarchy: The Despatch brilliantly structured the educational hierarchy: vernacular primary schools in villages, Anglo-vernacular high schools, affiliated colleges, and finally the examining universities. It also strongly recommended the establishment of a dedicated Department of Public Instruction in every province to manage the massive system.
π Education β’ Commissions
Q.18) The Hunter Education Commission (1882) evaluated the progress of education since 1854. It strongly recommended that the state should focus its resources primarily on the expansion and improvement of which level of education?
Ans > Primary education
- Reviewing Wood’s Despatch: The Hunter Education Commission (officially the Indian Education Commission) was appointed in 1882 by Viceroy Lord Ripon. Chaired by Sir William Wilson Hunter, its primary mandate was to rigorously review the educational progress and evaluate the execution of the policies laid out in Wood’s Despatch of 1854.
- Identifying the Flaws: The commission made a crucial observation: while higher, English-medium education had expanded significantly among the urban middle and upper classes, mass education for the vast rural population had been severely neglected by the colonial state.
- Shift in Financial Focus: To rectify this glaring inequality, the Hunter Commission strongly recommended that the government should systematically withdraw its direct management from higher and collegiate education (leaving it to private Indian enterprise and missionary trusts) and aggressively redirect its financial resources toward mass primary education.
- Vernacular Medium: It explicitly emphasized that primary education should be imparted solely in the vernacular (regional) languages, not English. It also recommended transferring the control and funding of these primary schools to newly created local municipal boards and district boards to ensure community participation.
π Education β’ Commissions
Q.19) Which commission was appointed in 1917 specifically to investigate the affairs and problems of the Calcutta University, leading to structural recommendations for higher education?
Ans > Sadler Commission
- The Calcutta University Problem: By the early 20th century, Calcutta University had become utterly unmanageable. It was heavily overburdened, serving as the sole examining body for hundreds of scattered affiliated colleges across Eastern India, leading to a massive decline in academic standards and administrative efficiency.
- Comprehensive Investigation: In 1917, the British government appointed the Calcutta University Commission, chaired by Dr. Michael Ernest Sadler (Vice-Chancellor of the University of Leeds). Although tasked primarily with studying Calcutta, its findings were so profound they influenced the entire Indian higher education landscape.
- The 10+2+3 Precedent: The Sadler Commission (1917-19) made sweeping, historic recommendations. Most notably, it suggested a rigid separation of secondary education from university education. It recommended a 12-year school course (the direct precursor to modern India’s 10+2 system) culminating in an Intermediate examination.
- University Restructuring: It declared that students should only enter university for a 3-year degree course after this 12-year schooling. Furthermore, it recommended that universities should transition from merely being “examining bodies” to becoming centralized, unitary, residential, and teaching-focused institutions to foster genuine academic research.
π Education β’ Gandhian Philosophy
Q.20) In 1937, Mahatma Gandhi introduced his scheme of Basic Education, emphasizing learning through productive manual labor (Nai Talim). What is this scheme commonly known as?
Ans > The Wardha Scheme
- The Wardha Conference: In October 1937, following the formation of Congress ministries in several provinces, an All-India National Educational Conference was convened at Wardha under the presidency of Mahatma Gandhi. Here, he presented his revolutionary, indigenous vision for Indian mass education.
- Nai Talim (New Education): Commonly known as the Wardha Scheme of Basic Education (or Nai Talim), the core philosophy advocated for free, universal, and compulsory education for all children between the ages of 7 and 14, strictly imparted in their mother tongue.
- Integrating Work and Knowledge: The absolute defining feature of this scheme was the total integration of academic learning with productive manual labor. Gandhi argued that education shouldn’t just be bookish; mathematics, science, and history should be taught through a foundational craft (like spinning, weaving, agriculture, or carpentry).
- Self-Sustaining Schools: The brilliant economic logic behind the scheme was that the goods produced by the students during their craft training would be sold to generate revenue. This would pay the teachers’ salaries, making the massive rural school system entirely self-sustaining and independent of colonial government funding, while simultaneously dignifying manual labor.
π Education β’ Women’s Reforms
Q.21) A major milestone for women’s education was achieved in 1916 when the first Indian Women’s University (SNDT) was established in Pune. Who was its founder?
Ans > Dhondo Keshav Karve (D.K. Karve)
- A Life Dedicated to Reform: Maharshi Dhondo Keshav Karve was a towering social reformer in Maharashtra, specifically dedicating his entire life’s work to the rigorous upliftment of exploited widows and the absolute necessity of widespread women’s education in orthodox Hindu society.
- Inspiration from Japan: While researching global educational models, Karve read a pamphlet about the Japan Women’s University in Tokyo. Deeply inspired by their model of providing higher education specifically tailored to the societal needs of women, he resolved to replicate it in India.
- Founding the University: In 1916, against immense orthodox opposition, he successfully founded the first university exclusively for women in India, starting with just five students in Pune.
- The SNDT Legacy: A few years later, Sir Vithaldas Thackersey, a prominent industrialist, donated a massive sum of Rs. 15 lakhs to the institution. In his honor, the university was officially renamed SNDT (Shreemati Nathibai Damodar Thackersey) Women’s University. It shifted to Bombay and remains a premier institution, marking a monumental milestone in the structural empowerment of Indian women.
π Education β’ Institutions
Q.22) The Aligarh Muslim University, a premier institution of higher learning, was originally founded in 1875 as the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College by whom?
Ans > Syed Ahmed Khan
- The Post-1857 Crisis: Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was deeply troubled by the severe educational, economic, and political backwardness of Indian Muslims in the devastating aftermath of the 1857 revolt, recognizing that their rejection of modern English education was a fatal flaw.
- The Aligarh Movement: He initiated the highly influential Aligarh Movement to aggressively promote modern, scientific, and Western education among the Muslim community, desperately trying to reconcile Islamic theology with Western rationalism and scientific inquiry.
- Founding the College: In 1875, he translated his vision into reality by founding the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental (MAO) College at Aligarh. He strictly modeled the institution’s architecture, curriculum, and residential culture on prestigious British universities like Oxford and Cambridge to create a new generation of educated Muslim leaders.
- Elevation to University Status: The MAO College rapidly became the intellectual, political, and cultural nerve center of Muslim India. Due to its massive success and influence, the British government officially elevated the college to the status of a fully-fledged university in 1920, creating the historic Aligarh Muslim University (AMU).
π Social Reform β’ Legislation
Q.23) The ‘Sarda Act’ of 1929, universally named after its sponsor Harbilas Sarda, dealt with which crucial social issue?
Ans > Restraint of Child Marriage
- The Child Marriage Restraint Act: Officially known as the Child Marriage Restraint Act of 1929, this landmark, highly progressive piece of social legislation was universally known as the Sarda Act, honoring its principal sponsor, the prominent judge and Arya Samaj member, Harbilas Sarda.
- Setting Legal Limits: The Act was a massive victory for women’s health advocates. It fundamentally criminalized and penalized the solemnization of child marriages across all religious communities in British India. It strictly fixed the minimum legal age of marriage at 18 years for boys and 14 years for girls.
- First Indigenous Social Law: The Sarda Act holds a deeply significant place in modern history because it was one of the very first major social reform bills drafted, passionately debated, and successfully passed primarily by the Indian members of the Central Legislative Assembly, rather than being imposed by the British administration.
- Orthodox Backlash: Despite its noble intentions, the law faced furious, organized opposition from conservative Hindu and Muslim orthodox groups who viewed it as a gross interference in their religious personal laws. Consequently, due to weak enforcement mechanisms, child marriages unfortunately continued covertly.
π Social Reform β’ Caste System
Q.24) The book Gulamgiri (Slavery), published in 1873, forcefully exposed the injustices of the caste system and was dedicated to the anti-slavery movement in the United States. Who authored it?
Ans > Jyotiba Phule
- A Scathing Social Critique: Mahatma Jyotirao (Jyotiba) Phule, an incredibly radical anti-caste thinker and social revolutionary from Maharashtra, authored the highly explosive book *Gulamgiri* (meaning ‘Slavery’) in 1873. The text was a blistering, systematic attack on Brahminical religious supremacy.
- Deconstructing Mythology: Phule utilized a brilliant, subversive re-interpretation of orthodox Hindu mythology (particularly the Dashavatara) to fiercely argue that the upper castes (Brahmins) were essentially Aryan invaders who had brutally subjugated the indigenous, original inhabitants of India, forcing them into the degrading status of Shudras and Atishudras (untouchables).
- International Solidarity: In a remarkable display of early global solidarity, Phule dedicated *Gulamgiri* to the abolitionists and the “good people of the United States” who had successfully fought the bloody American Civil War to end African-American slavery.
- Caste as Slavery: By doing this, he explicitly and powerfully drew a direct, unignorable parallel between the race-based chattel slavery of the American South and the deeply entrenched, religiously sanctioned caste system in India, arguing that the condition of the lower castes was identical to, if not worse than, that of slaves.
π Social Reform β’ Organizations
Q.25) The Paramahansa Mandali was an early, secret socio-religious reform organization founded in 1849 that sought to break caste rules by eating together. In which state was it formed?
Ans > Maharashtra
- Founding in Bombay: The Paramahansa Mandali was an early, highly radical socio-religious reform organization founded in Bombay (Maharashtra) in 1849. The society was primarily established by progressive intellectuals like Dadoba Pandurang, Mehtaji Durgaram, and their associates.
- Core Ideology: Heavily influenced by the rationalist ideas of the Brahmo Samaj and Western liberal thought, the Mandali firmly believed in monotheism (one God) and vehemently rejected the rigid, oppressive hierarchies of the orthodox Hindu caste system and blind idol worship.
- Operating in Utter Secrecy: Because openly breaking strict caste taboos in the mid-19th century resulted in severe, unbearable social boycotts and excommunication by conservative society, the Mandali was forced to operate in absolute secrecy.
- The Ritual of Equality: New members were required to take a solemn oath to completely abandon caste restrictions. During their covert meetings, the defining ritual of defiance involved all members sitting together to partake in food and water explicitly cooked and served by individuals belonging to the lowest, “untouchable” castes, completely shattering Brahminical notions of purity and pollution.
π Social Reform β’ Women’s Welfare
Q.26) The Seva Sadan was established in Bombay in 1908 to provide education, medical care, and social support for exploited women. Who was its primary founder?
Ans > Behramji M. Malabari
- A Parsi Reformer’s Vision: Behramji M. Malabari, a highly prominent Parsi journalist, author, and relentless social reformer, founded the Seva Sadan in Bombay in 1908. He collaborated closely with his wealthy friend and philanthropist, Diwan Dayaram Gidumal, to bring this noble vision to life.
- Upliftment of the Exploited: The institution was specifically and exclusively dedicated to the care, shelter, and absolute empowerment of vulnerable women. It targeted those facing extreme societal hardshipβincluding discarded wives, destitute young widows, and orphans who had been cast out by orthodox society.
- Holistic Empowerment: The Seva Sadan did not just provide basic charity. It offered a highly structured program of modern education, specialized medical care, and critical vocational training. Women were trained as nurses, teachers, and tailors.
- Economic Independence: By equipping these deeply exploited women with professional, marketable skills, the organization successfully helped them achieve complete economic independence and social dignity. Malabari’s prior relentless campaigning had also been heavily instrumental in passing the crucial Age of Consent Act in 1891, proving his lifelong dedication to women’s rights.
π Social Reform β’ Spiritual Organizations
Q.27) The Ramakrishna Mission, emphasizing spiritual growth through humanitarian relief and social service, was established by Swami Vivekananda in which year?
Ans > 1897
- Establishment Post-Chicago: Following his spectacular, triumphant return from the West after his iconic speech at the Parliament of Religions in Chicago (1893), Swami Vivekananda sought to institutionalize his master’s teachings. He officially established the Ramakrishna Mission on May 1, 1897, at Belur Math near Calcutta.
- Service to Man is Service to God: The absolute core philosophy of the Mission was encapsulated in Vivekananda’s doctrine: *Daridra Narayana* (God in the form of the poor). He preached that the highest form of spiritual worship was not found in isolated meditation, but in the selfless service of humanity.
- Action-Oriented Spirituality: Unlike traditional, highly ascetic Hindu monastic orders that focused solely on individual salvation, the Mission explicitly combined the deep spiritual philosophy of Advaita Vedanta with rigorous, modern social service.
- Institutional Framework: The Mission rapidly built a massive, highly organized network of modern hospitals, rural dispensaries, schools, and orphanages. Furthermore, the monks of the Ramakrishna Mission became renowned for their immediate and highly effective deployment during national crises, leading massive disaster relief efforts during famines, floods, and epidemics across the Indian subcontinent.
π Social Reform β’ Brahmo Samaj
Q.28) The Tattvabodhini Patrika, a highly influential Bengali journal that promoted the ideas of the Brahmo Samaj and systematic study of India’s past, was published by whom?
Ans > Debendranath Tagore
- The Tattvabodhini Sabha: Years before he officially joined and revitalized the Brahmo Samaj, the deeply spiritual Maharshi Debendranath Tagore (father of the Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore) founded the Tattvabodhini Sabha (Truth-Teaching Society) in 1839. Its primary goal was to propagate the profound, monotheistic truths of the ancient Upanishads.
- Launch of the Journal: To effectively disseminate the Sabha’s progressive religious philosophy to the wider Bengali public, Tagore launched the highly influential journal, the *Tattvabodhini Patrika*, in 1843, appointing the brilliant Akshay Kumar Datta as its first editor.
- Cultural and Literary Impact: The Patrika rapidly became the premier literary, cultural, and intellectual organ of 19th-century Bengal. It played a massive role in standardizing and modernizing Bengali prose, making it a vehicle for serious philosophical and scientific discourse.
- Defending Indian Identity: The journal served a crucial dual purpose: it fostered a highly rational, reformist approach to Hindu religion (attacking idolatry), while simultaneously defending indigenous Indian culture and philosophy against the aggressive ideological critiques mounted by Christian missionaries of the era.
π Social Reform β’ Sati Abolition
Q.29) Which early Indian reformer led a tireless crusade against orthodox Hindu practices, which was primarily responsible for the British government passing the Abolition of Sati Act in 1829?
Ans > Raja Rammohan Roy
- The Father of Modern India: Raja Rammohan Roy, a polyglot scholar deeply versed in Sanskrit, Persian, and English, was utterly horrified by the barbaric practice of Sati (the forced or voluntary immolation of a widow on her husband’s funeral pyre).
- The Scriptural Battle: Roy did not just use Western humanist arguments; he brilliantly utilized his profound knowledge of ancient Hindu scriptures (the Vedas and Upanishads). He published numerous tracts and pamphlets to conclusively prove to the orthodox Brahmin clergy that the brutal practice actually had absolutely no valid religious sanction in original Hinduism.
- Mobilizing Public Opinion: He faced intense, violent opposition from conservative factions like the Dharma Sabha (led by Radhakant Deb), but he relentlessly mobilized progressive public opinion and organized vigilante groups to physically prevent forced immolations at the burning ghats in Calcutta.
- The Legislative Victory: Through his relentless social campaigning and continuous petitioning of the British authorities, he heavily influenced and provided the moral backing for Governor-General Lord William Bentinck to take decisive legal action. Bentinck formally passed the historic Bengal Sati Regulation, criminalizing and abolishing the practice in 1829.
π Education β’ Colonial Administration
Q.30) In 1800, the British established Fort William College in Calcutta. What was the primary purpose of this institution?
Ans > To train young British civil servants in Indian languages, laws, and customs
- Lord Wellesley’s Initiative: In the year 1800, Governor-General Lord Richard Wellesley formally established the prestigious Fort William College in Calcutta. His primary, strategic objective was to ensure that young, newly arrived British civil servants (writers) of the East India Company were properly trained before taking up crucial administrative posts.
- Administrative and Linguistic Training: Wellesley realized that to effectively rule the massive subcontinent, British officials could not remain culturally and linguistically ignorant. The college rigorously trained them in various Indian languages, complex local laws, revenue systems, and traditional customs.
- The Unintended Literary Renaissance: While established strictly as an administrative training center, the college inadvertently sparked a massive linguistic and literary revival. To teach the British officials, the college employed hundreds of native Indian scholars (Pundits and Munshis) led by John Gilchrist.
- Standardizing Indian Languages: These scholars undertook the massive, historic task of systematically standardizing grammatical structures and translating classical Sanskrit and Persian texts. They printed the very first textbooks and dictionaries, vastly enriching the modern prose forms of several major Indian languages, particularly Bengali, Hindi, and Urdu, fundamentally shaping modern Indian literature.
π Quick Summary β Modern History Set 71
- Abhinav Bharat: Founded in 1904 by V.D. Savarkar, transforming the Mitra Mela into a secret society.
- Anushilan Samiti: Established in 1902 in Bengal by P. Mitra and Barindra Kumar Ghosh.
- Central Assembly Bomb: Batukeshwar Dutt threw a bomb alongside Bhagat Singh in 1929.
- Chittagong Armoury Raid: Masterminded by Surya Sen (Master Da) in 1930.
- O’Dwyer Assassination: Udham Singh shot Michael O’Dwyer in London in 1940.
- Ghadar Party: Headquartered at the Yugantar Ashram in San Francisco.
- India House: Established in London in 1905 by Shyamji Krishna Varma.
- First Indian Flag: Madam Bhikaji Cama hoisted it in Stuttgart, Germany in 1907.
- Viceroy Hardinge Plot: Rash Behari Bose masterminded the 1912 bomb attack.
- HRA Formation: The Hindustan Republican Association was formed in Kanpur in 1924.
- HSRA Socialist Shift: Chandrashekhar Azad added “Socialist” to the HRA in 1928.
- Som Prakash: Influential Bengali newspaper started by Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar.
- Amrita Bazar Patrika: Evaded the 1878 Vernacular Press Act by switching to English overnight.
- Bande Mataram: Extremist nationalist journal edited by Aurobindo Ghosh.
- Al Hilal: Urdu weekly launched by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad in 1912 to forge unity.
- First Law Commission: Chaired by Lord Macaulay in 1834 to draft the IPC.
- Wood’s Despatch (1854): Modeled the new Indian universities on London University.
- Hunter Commission (1882): Recommended a strong state focus on primary education.
- Sadler Commission (1917): Appointed to investigate Calcutta University’s problems.
- Wardha Scheme (1937): Gandhi’s Basic Education model emphasizing productive manual labor.
- SNDT Women’s University: Founded by D.K. Karve in Pune in 1916.
- Aligarh Muslim University: Originally founded as MAO College by Syed Ahmed Khan in 1875.
- Sarda Act (1929): Landmark legislation dealing with the restraint of child marriage.
- Gulamgiri (1873): Authored by Jyotiba Phule to fiercely critique the caste system.
- Paramahansa Mandali: Secret anti-caste society formed in Maharashtra in 1849.
- Seva Sadan: Founded in 1908 by Behramji M. Malabari to uplift exploited women.
- Ramakrishna Mission: Established by Swami Vivekananda in 1897 for social service.
- Tattvabodhini Patrika: Published by Debendranath Tagore to promote Brahmo ideals.
- Abolition of Sati (1829): The result of Raja Rammohan Roy’s tireless social crusade.
- Fort William College (1800): Established to train British civil servants in Indian languages.
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