Modern History Set 57
π
π Constitutional Development β’ Nehru Report
Q.1) The Nehru Report of 1928, the first major attempt by Indians to draft a constitutional framework for the country, demanded which status for India?
Ans > Dominion Status
- Historical Context & The Challenge: The Nehru Report was commissioned as a direct, unified response to the arrogant challenge thrown by the British Secretary of State for India, Lord Birkenhead. He notoriously claimed that Indians were deeply divided and fundamentally incapable of drafting a unified constitutional framework acceptable to all political factions.
- Formation of the Drafting Committee: To answer this challenge, an All Parties Conference met in early 1928 and appointed a special committee headed by the veteran leader Motilal Nehru. The committee included prominent members from various ideologies, including Tej Bahadur Sapru, Subhas Chandra Bose, Mangal Singh, and Ali Imam, to draft the constitution.
- Key Recommendations & Liberal Demands: The primary, most debated demand of the report was for Dominion Status within the British Commonwealth, which rejected immediate full independence. It also famously recommended joint electorates with reserved seats for minorities (firmly rejecting the British policy of separate electorates), the creation of linguistic provinces, and a comprehensive list of 19 fundamental rights for citizens, including equal rights for women.
- Internal Congress Backlash: The moderate demand for Dominion Status caused a massive ideological rift within the Indian National Congress. Younger, highly radical leaders, most notably Motilal’s own son Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose, vehemently rejected this stance. They immediately formed the ‘Independence for India League’ to aggressively push for ‘Purna Swaraj’ (Complete Independence), setting the stage for future confrontations.
π Constitutional Development β’ Jinnah’s 14 Points
Q.2) In response to the Nehru Report, which political leader rejected it and proposed his famous “Fourteen Points” to safeguard minority rights?
Ans > Muhammad Ali Jinnah
- Context of the Rejection: Muhammad Ali Jinnah and the Muslim League felt utterly marginalized by the Nehru Report. They firmly believed that the report’s recommendation of joint electorates and a strong unitary center would permanently subject the Muslim minority to the political dominance of the Hindu majority in any future democratic setup.
- The Delhi Proposals Background: Prior to the Nehru Report, in 1927, Jinnah had actually agreed to give up the demand for separate electorates in the ‘Delhi Proposals’, provided certain other demands (like separating Sindh from Bombay) were met. Because the Nehru Report ignored these nuances, Jinnah felt compelled to consolidate his community’s demands into a rigid new framework.
- Core Demands of the 14 Points: Presented in March 1929, the fourteen points demanded a truly federal constitution with residual powers vested heavily in the provinces (not the center). Crucially, Jinnah demanded that no less than one-third (33%) of the representation in the Central Legislature be strictly reserved for Muslims, and he insisted on the retention of separate communal electorates.
- Long-Term Political Ramifications: Jinnah’s 14 Points were totally rejected by the Congress leadership. However, they became the fundamental manifesto and minimum acceptable criteria for the Muslim League in all subsequent negotiations with the British and the Congress. The failure to reconcile the Nehru Report and the 14 Points significantly widened the communal divide, eventually laying the ideological groundwork for the demand for Pakistan.
π Indian National Congress β’ Lahore Session
Q.3) The historic Lahore session of the Indian National Congress in December 1929 is famous for passing a resolution declaring what as its ultimate political goal?
Ans > Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence)
- The Expiration of the Deadline: During the 1928 Calcutta session, Mahatma Gandhi had brokered a fragile compromise: Congress would accept the Nehru Report’s Dominion Status, but strictly gave the British government a one-year ultimatum to grant it. By December 1929, the British had totally failed to meet this demand, rendering the Nehru Report effectively null and void.
- Defining Purna Swaraj: Consequently, on December 19, 1929, the Congress passed the historic ‘Purna Swaraj’ resolution. This meant the complete and absolute severance of all political ties with the British Empire. The goal was no longer self-rule under the British crown, but the establishment of a fully sovereign, independent Indian republic.
- Authorization of Mass Action: To achieve this massive new objective, the Lahore Congress officially authorized the All India Congress Committee (AICC) to launch a nationwide programme of Civil Disobedience whenever they deemed fit. This included the crucial directive for the non-payment of oppressive British taxes.
- Legislative Boycott & Resignations: The resolution fundamentally altered the political strategy of the time. It directed all Congressmen to immediately boycott the upcoming elections to the central and provincial legislatures, and explicitly ordered those currently holding seats in existing government committees to resign their positions immediately.
π Indian National Congress β’ Presidency
Q.4) Who presided over the momentous 1929 Lahore session of the Indian National Congress where the ‘Purna Swaraj’ resolution was adopted?
Ans > Jawaharlal Nehru
- Mahatma Gandhi’s Strategic Support: Initially, Mahatma Gandhi was heavily favored and nominated to preside over the critical Lahore session. However, recognizing the shifting mood of the country and the rising influence of the youth, Gandhi deliberately stepped down. He strongly backed the 40-year-old Jawaharlal Nehru, ensuring the leadership transitioned to the radical left-wing of the party.
- A Shift to the Radical Left: Nehru’s presidency marked a massive generational and ideological shift within the Congress. While the older generation favored cautious negotiation, Nehru represented the fiery impatience of the youth. In his powerful presidential address, he unapologetically declared, “I must frankly confess that I am a socialist and a republican, and am no believer in kings and princes.”
- The Midnight Flag Hoisting: The climax of the Lahore session was highly dramatic. At exactly midnight on December 31, 1929, amidst massive, cheering crowds, Jawaharlal Nehru officially hoisted the newly adopted tricolor flag of Indian independence on the banks of the Ravi river in Lahore.
- Economic Radicalism: Nehru used his presidential platform not just to demand political freedom, but to introduce socialist economic thought into the mainstream Congress agenda. He argued that true freedom must include the eradication of severe poverty and the dismantling of deeply entrenched feudal structures (like the Zamindari system) that oppressed the Indian peasantry.
π Freedom Struggle β’ Independence Day
Q.5) Following the Lahore Congress, the newly adopted tricolor flag was hoisted, and the first ‘Independence Day’ was symbolically observed all over India on which date?
Ans > January 26, 1930
- Implementation of the Lahore Mandate: Following the dramatic declaration of Purna Swaraj, the newly formed Congress Working Committee (CWC) met on January 2, 1930. They decided that a specific day must be fixed to mobilize the entire nation and test the readiness of the masses for the upcoming struggle. They chose the last Sunday of the month, which fell on January 26.
- The Pledge of Independence: Mahatma Gandhi meticulously drafted a powerful document known as the ‘Pledge of Independence’ (or Declaration of Independence). It famously stated that it is the inalienable right of the Indian people to have freedom and enjoy the fruits of their toil, and that the British government had “ruined India economically, politically, culturally, and spiritually.”
- Nationwide Mass Mobilization: On January 26, 1930, millions of Indians across thousands of villages and cities gathered in public squares. The tricolor flag was hoisted, and the crowds collectively recited the Pledge of Independence in their local languages, swearing an oath to carry out the instructions of the Congress for establishing Purna Swaraj.
- The Legacy of Republic Day: The emotional and historical resonance of January 26 was so profound that exactly twenty years later, the leaders of free India deliberately chose this specific date to formally enact the Constitution of India. Thus, January 26, 1950, became Republic Day, forever honoring the memory of the first symbolic Independence Day.
π Civil Disobedience β’ Salt March
Q.6) Mahatma Gandhi launched the Civil Disobedience Movement by beginning his historic Salt March (Dandi March) from Sabarmati Ashram on which date?
Ans > March 12, 1930
- The Strategic Genius of Choosing Salt: Many Congress leaders were initially baffled when Gandhi chose salt as the central symbol of the movement. However, it was a masterstroke. The British Salt Act of 1882 gave the government a total monopoly on the collection and manufacture of salt. The heavy tax on this absolutely essential dietary ingredient disproportionately affected the poorest of the poor, making it the perfect unifying issue across all classes and religions.
- The Ultimatum to Lord Irwin: Before launching the march, Gandhi adhered to his strict principles of Satyagraha by giving the adversary a fair warning. On March 2, he sent a letter to Viceroy Lord Irwin detailing an 11-point demand list (which included the abolition of the salt tax). When Irwin totally ignored the letter, Gandhi famously noted, “On bended knees I asked for bread and I have received stone instead.”
- The Genesis at Sabarmati: The historic march officially commenced at dawn on March 12, 1930, from the gates of the Sabarmati Ashram in Ahmedabad. Gandhi was accompanied by exactly 78 carefully selected, highly disciplined ashram inmates who represented various regions and religions of India, symbolizing national unity.
- Global Media Spotlight: Gandhi understood the immense power of optics. The march was extensively covered by the international press, most notably by the American journalist Webb Miller. The daily reports of a frail, 61-year-old man walking hundreds of miles to defy a mighty empire generated massive global sympathy for the Indian cause and deeply embarrassed the British government.
π Civil Disobedience β’ Dandi March
Q.7) The Dandi March covered a distance of about 240 miles. How many days did Gandhi and his 78 trusted followers take to complete this journey?
Ans > 24 days
- The Grueling Itinerary: Spanning exactly 24 days from March 12 to April 5, the march covered approximately 240 miles (about 390 kilometers). The 61-year-old Gandhi set a grueling pace, walking roughly 10 miles every single day under the harsh Indian sun, passing through dozens of dusty villages in Gujarat.
- Grassroots Mobilization Strategy: The march was not a race; it was a highly calculated political mobilization tour. The slow, 24-day progression allowed news to travel ahead of them. By the time the marchers arrived at a village, massive crowds had gathered. Hundreds of village headmen (patels) resigned from their British government posts in a massive show of solidarity as Gandhi passed through.
- Constructive Programme Stops: Gandhi utilized the daily evening halts to aggressively preach his broader ‘Constructive Programme’. He delivered powerful speeches urging villagers to abolish the practice of untouchability, strictly boycott foreign cloth in favor of Khadi, give up alcohol and narcotics, and maintain absolute Hindu-Muslim unity.
- The Climax on April 6: The marchers finally reached the coastal village of Dandi on April 5. The following morning, on April 6, 1930 (which coincided with the anniversary of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre week), Gandhi bathed in the sea, walked to the shore, and famously picked up a small lump of natural salt left by the waves, thereby illegally manufacturing salt and officially launching the Civil Disobedience Movement.
π Civil Disobedience β’ Tamil Nadu
Q.8) While Gandhi marched in Gujarat, the Salt Satyagraha in Tamil Nadu (from Trichinopoly to Vedaranyam) was led by which prominent leader?
Ans > C. Rajagopalachari
- The Vedaranyam March: Following Gandhi’s strict instructions for nationwide defiance, Chakravarti Rajagopalachari (popularly known as Rajaji) brilliantly organized and executed a parallel salt march in the Madras Presidency. The 150-mile journey began on April 13, 1930, from Trichinopoly (Tiruchirappalli) and headed towards the coastal town of Vedaranyam in the Tanjore district.
- Overcoming State Repression: The British authorities in Madras were incredibly ruthless. The District Collector issued strict orders threatening severe punishment to anyone who provided food, water, or shelter to Rajaji’s marchers. Despite these terrifying threats, local villagers bravely smuggled supplies to the satyagrahis under the cover of darkness.
- Breaking the Law & Arrests: Rajaji and his followers successfully reached Vedaranyam on April 28. They defied the British monopoly by boiling seawater and collecting the salt. The police immediately cracked down with brutal lathi charges. Rajaji was arrested and sentenced to rigorous imprisonment, which only served to further ignite nationalist fervor across South India.
- Women at the Forefront: The Vedaranyam march was historically significant for the massive participation of women. Prominent female leaders actively broke the law alongside the men. Notably, Smt. Rukmini Lakshmipathi participated and became the very first woman in the Madras Presidency to be arrested and imprisoned for violating the oppressive salt laws.
π Civil Disobedience β’ NWFP
Q.9) In the North-West Frontier Province, the Civil Disobedience Movement was spearheaded by the ‘Red Shirts’ (Khudai Khidmatgars), organized by whom?
Ans > Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan
- The Frontier Gandhi: Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, a deeply devout Pashtun leader, was universally revered as the ‘Frontier Gandhi’. He achieved the seemingly impossible task of instilling the philosophy of absolute non-violence (Ahimsa) into the highly martial, fiercely independent Pashtun tribal society of the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP).
- The Khudai Khidmatgars: In 1929, he founded the ‘Khudai Khidmatgars’ (Servants of God). Because their volunteers dyed their plain shirts with cheap brick dust to hide dirt during social work, the British dismissively labeled them the ‘Red Shirts’. They swore an oath to serve humanity, avoid violence, and actively struggle against British rule.
- The Peshawar Uprising (April 1930): Following the arrest of Ghaffar Khan and other Congress leaders in April 1930, massive, peaceful protests erupted in Peshawar. The British responded with horrific brutality in the Qissa Khwani Bazaar, firing machine guns into the unarmed crowds, killing hundreds of Red Shirt volunteers who bravely stood their ground without retaliating.
- Mutiny of the Garhwal Rifles: During the Peshawar massacre, a highly significant event occurred that terrified the British command. A platoon of the Garhwal Rifles (a Hindu regiment of the British Indian Army), led by Chandra Singh Garhwali, explicitly refused orders to fire upon the unarmed Muslim Pashtun crowd, leading to their immediate court-martial and severe imprisonment.
π Civil Disobedience β’ North East
Q.10) During the Civil Disobedience Movement, a brave 13-year-old Naga spiritual leader raised the banner of revolt against the British in Manipur. Who was she?
Ans > Rani Gaidinliu
- The Heraka Movement Background: Gaidinliu initially joined the ‘Heraka’ (Pure) religious movement led by her cousin, Haipou Jadonang, in the Zeliangrong Naga region. The movement quickly evolved from a socio-religious reform effort into a fierce, anti-British political rebellion aimed at establishing independent Naga rule (Makaam Gwangdi) and driving out the colonial administration.
- Taking the Leadership Mantle: After the British captured and unjustly hanged Jadonang for treason in 1931, the leadership of the rebellion fell entirely onto the shoulders of a 16-year-old Gaidinliu. She brilliantly organized the Naga tribes, urging them not to pay taxes to the British and actively resisting the recruitment of forced labor (the hated ‘porter’ system).
- Arrest and Life Imprisonment: The British deployed thousands of Assam Rifles troops in a massive manhunt to capture her, recognizing her immense influence. In October 1932, she was finally captured after a fierce battle at Poilwa village. The colonial courts convicted the teenage girl of subversion and shockingly sentenced her to life imprisonment.
- The Title of “Rani”: In 1937, while touring the Northeast, Jawaharlal Nehru learned of her incredible bravery and met her in the Shillong jail. Deeply moved, he promised to secure her release, gave her the title “Rani” (Queen), and famously called her the “Daughter of the Hills.” Despite his efforts, the British refused to release her; she finally walked free only after India gained independence in 1947, after spending 14 years in brutal captivity.
π Round Table Conferences β’ First RTC
Q.11) The First Round Table Conference was convened in London in 1930 to discuss the Simon Commission report. Which major political entity boycotted this conference?
Ans > The Indian National Congress
- Context of the Conference: The First Round Table Conference was held in London from November 1930 to January 1931. Inaugurated by King George V and chaired by British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald, its stated goal was to discuss future constitutional reforms for India based primarily on the widely rejected Simon Commission report.
- The Congress Boycott: The Indian National Congress, the absolute largest and most representative political organization in India, entirely boycotted the conference. Most of its prominent leaders, including Gandhi and Nehru, were locked inside British jails due to their active leadership of the massive, ongoing Civil Disobedience Movement and the Salt Satyagraha.
- Who Actually Attended?: Despite the Congress absence, the British managed to assemble 89 delegates. These included representatives of the Muslim League (Jinnah, Aga Khan), the Hindu Mahasabha (B.S. Moonje), Indian Liberals (Tej Bahadur Sapru, M.R. Jayakar), the Depressed Classes (Dr. B.R. Ambedkar), and various wealthy Princes from the Indian states.
- An Exercise in Futility: The conference concluded with a general agreement on the concept of an All-India Federation and limited responsible government at the provincial level. However, the British realized that any constitutional framework decided upon in London was completely meaningless and utterly unenforceable in India without the consent and participation of the Indian National Congress.
π Agreements β’ Gandhi-Irwin Pact
Q.12) The Civil Disobedience Movement was temporarily suspended following an agreement between Mahatma Gandhi and the Viceroy. In which month and year was the Gandhi-Irwin Pact signed?
Ans > March 1931
- The Necessity of Negotiation: Realizing the utter failure of the First Round Table Conference without Congress participation, the British government desperately needed a truce. Viceroy Lord Irwin released Gandhi and other Congress Working Committee members from prison in January 1931 to facilitate direct negotiations, brokered heavily by moderate leaders like Tej Bahadur Sapru and M.R. Jayakar.
- The Delhi Pact Signed: After grueling, highly secretive talks lasting over two weeks, the Gandhi-Irwin Pact (also known formally as the Delhi Pact) was finally signed on March 5, 1931. It was a massive psychological victory for Indians, as it was the very first time the powerful British Viceroy negotiated with an Indian leader on an equal footing.
- British Concessions: The Viceroy agreed to immediately release all political prisoners convicted of non-violent offenses, return confiscated lands (where they had not yet been sold to third parties), permit the peaceful picketing of liquor and foreign cloth shops, and importantly, allow coastal villagers the right to manufacture salt for personal consumption (though not for commercial sale).
- Congress Concessions & Criticism: In return, Gandhi agreed to completely suspend the nationwide Civil Disobedience Movement and officially committed the Congress to participate in the upcoming Second Round Table Conference in London. The pact was heavily criticized by radical youth leaders (like Bose and Nehru) because Gandhi failed to secure a pardon for Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru, who were tragically hanged just weeks later.
π Round Table Conferences β’ Second RTC
Q.13) Following the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, Mahatma Gandhi traveled to London as the sole representative of the Indian National Congress to attend which Round Table Conference?
Ans > Second Round Table Conference (1931)
- The Sole Congress Representative: Honoring the terms of the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, Mahatma Gandhi sailed to London in late 1931. He attended the Second Round Table Conference as the absolute sole official representative of the Indian National Congress, claiming that the Congress alone represented the unified political will of the entire Indian nation.
- Other Prominent Attendees: While Gandhi was the sole Congress voice, the British had invited numerous other Indian delegates. These included Sarojini Naidu (representing Indian women), Madan Mohan Malaviya (representing Hindu interests), Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (representing the depressed classes), and leaders of the Muslim League and the Princely States.
- The Deadlock over Minorities: The entire conference was deliberately derailed by the British focus on the “Minorities Problem.” Dr. Ambedkar vehemently demanded separate communal electorates for the depressed classes (untouchables), a demand immediately echoed by representatives of the Muslim and Sikh communities.
- Failure and Return: Gandhi fiercely opposed dividing the Indian electorate into communal blocks, particularly arguing that separate electorates for the depressed classes would permanently divide Hindu society and ensure they remained outcasts. With the Indian delegates deeply divided, the British government used the deadlock as an excuse to deny any meaningful transfer of power. Gandhi returned to India empty-handed in December 1931 and immediately resumed the Civil Disobedience Movement.
π British Policies β’ Communal Award
Q.14) The controversial Communal Award of 1932, which provided separate electorates for the depressed classes, was announced by which British Prime Minister?
Ans > Ramsay MacDonald
- The Ultimate ‘Divide and Rule’: Announced on August 16, 1932, by British PM Ramsay MacDonald, the Communal Award was the most aggressive implementation of the colonial ‘divide and rule’ strategy. It was based primarily on the findings of the Lothian Committee (the Indian Franchise Committee).
- Expanding the Communal Electorates: The award not only retained and expanded the existing system of separate electorates for Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, and Europeans, but it introduced a deeply controversial new element.
- Targeting the Depressed Classes: The most explosive provision of the award was explicitly declaring the ‘Depressed Classes’ (Scheduled Castes) as a minority community entirely separate from the general Hindu population, granting them their own exclusive separate electorates for the provincial legislatures.
- Gandhi’s Fierce Opposition: Mahatma Gandhi viewed this specific provision as a malicious, calculated British plot to physically and politically fracture Hindu society. He argued that while Muslims or Sikhs were distinct religions, untouchability was a social evil within Hinduism that needed reform, not permanent political separation, which he feared would ensure Dalits remained untouchables forever.
π Agreements β’ Poona Pact
Q.15) Mahatma Gandhi undertook a fast unto death in protest against the Communal Award. This led to the Poona Pact of 1932, which replaced separate electorates for the depressed classes with what?
Ans > Reserved seats in joint electorates
- The Fast Unto Death: Upon hearing the announcement of the Communal Award from inside the Yerwada Central Jail in Poona, Mahatma Gandhi immediately commenced a “fast unto death” on September 20, 1932. He vowed to starve himself unless the provision granting separate electorates to the depressed classes was entirely revoked.
- Immense National Pressure: Gandhi’s rapidly deteriorating health sent shockwaves across the entire nation. Massive political and moral pressure was instantly brought to bear upon Dr. B.R. Ambedkar to compromise his stance and save the Mahatma’s life. Hindu leaders like Madan Mohan Malaviya, Tej Bahadur Sapru, and M.R. Jayakar scrambled to mediate a solution.
- The Compromise Reached: After intense, bitter negotiations, a compromise known as the Poona Pact was reached on September 24, 1932. Under this agreement, the idea of completely separate electorates for the depressed classes was officially abandoned in favor of a joint Hindu electorate.
- Increased Representation: To heavily compensate for the loss of separate electorates, the pact drastically increased the total number of reserved seats for the depressed classes in the provincial legislatures from the 71 offered by the British to 147. Furthermore, they were guaranteed 18% of the seats in the Central Legislature, ensuring significant political representation within the broader Hindu fold.
π Agreements β’ Poona Pact Signatories
Q.16) The historic Poona Pact (1932) was signed by Madan Mohan Malaviya on behalf of the upper caste Hindus, and by whom on behalf of the depressed classes?
Ans > Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
- The Reluctant Signatory: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, the undisputed leader representing the depressed classes, signed the Poona Pact with immense reluctance and deep bitterness. He firmly believed that separate electorates were the only way to ensure true, uncompromised political power for Dalits, but the sheer moral blackmail of Gandhi’s impending death forced his hand.
- The Hindu Leadership: On the other side of the negotiating table, the pact was signed by Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya, explicitly representing the orthodox upper-caste Hindu leadership. The signing took place inside the walls of the Yerwada Central Jail where Gandhi was undertaking his fast.
- The Primary Electoral System: The pact instituted a complex two-tier voting system. In the primary election, only voters from the depressed classes would vote to elect a panel of four candidates for each reserved seat. In the subsequent secondary election, the entire joint electorate (including upper castes) would vote to elect one of those four candidates.
- Long-Term Historical Grievance: While the pact successfully saved Gandhi’s life and was quickly accepted by the British government to amend the Communal Award, Dr. Ambedkar later heavily criticized it. He argued that the joint electorate system allowed upper-caste Hindu voters to effectively control which Dalit candidate ultimately won the seat, severely diluting independent Dalit political leadership.
π Constitutional Development β’ Govt of India Act 1935
Q.17) The Government of India Act 1935 proposed a new constitutional structure for India, which included the establishment of what at the center?
Ans > An All India Federation
- A Monumental Legislation: The Government of India Act 1935 was the longest and most complex Act ever passed by the British Parliament up to that time. It was the direct result of the long, drawn-out processes of the Simon Commission, the three Round Table Conferences, and the subsequent British White Paper.
- The Federal Structure Proposal: The most significant proposal of the Act was the establishment of an ‘All-India Federation’ at the center. This federation was designed to merge the British Indian Provinces (which were directly ruled) and the semi-autonomous Princely States into one unified central governmental structure with a bicameral federal legislature.
- The Catch-22 Condition: There was a massive structural catch. The formation of this Federation was highly conditional: it required that at least 50% of the Princely States (based on population and allocated seats) voluntarily sign an ‘Instrument of Accession’ to join the federation.
- Why the Federation Failed: The Princes ultimately refused to join. They feared that joining a democratically elected federal structure would drastically dilute their absolute sovereign powers and expose them to the radical, anti-feudal politics of the Indian National Congress. Consequently, the federal part of the Act never came into force, and the central government continued to operate under the older 1919 Act until independence in 1947.
π Constitutional Development β’ Provincial Autonomy
Q.18) The Government of India Act 1935 abolished the system of dyarchy in the provinces and replaced it with which new administrative principle?
Ans > Provincial Autonomy
- Abolishing Unpopular Dyarchy: The 1919 Act had introduced ‘Dyarchy’ at the provincial level, dividing subjects into ‘Transferred’ (managed by Indian ministers) and ‘Reserved’ (managed by the British Governor). This system was chaotic, universally hated, and highly unworkable. The 1935 Act completely abolished dyarchy in the provinces (though it proposed moving it to the center).
- Defining Provincial Autonomy: In its place, the Act introduced the principle of ‘Provincial Autonomy’. This meant that the provinces were now recognized as largely independent administrative units, freed from the strict ‘superintendence, direction, and control’ of the central British administration in specific, defined legislative spheres.
- Responsible Indian Government: All provincial subjects (including finance, law and order, and revenue) were handed over to Indian ministers who were democratically elected and directly responsible to the provincial legislature. This marked the first real taste of democratic administration for Indian politicians.
- The Governor’s Dictatorial Powers: However, this autonomy was heavily diluted. The British-appointed Provincial Governors retained immense, overriding ‘special responsibilities’ and ‘discretionary powers’. A Governor could dismiss the elected Indian ministries, veto any legislation, and completely take over the administration of the province in the event of a perceived “breakdown of constitutional machinery” (Section 93).
π Elections β’ 1937 Provincial Elections
Q.19) In the provincial elections held in 1937 under the new Government of India Act, the Indian National Congress swept the polls and formed ministries in how many provinces initially?
Ans > Seven
- The Decision to Contest: Despite heavily criticizing the 1935 Act as a “new charter of slavery” due to the Governors’ dictatorial veto powers, the Indian National Congress pragmatically decided to contest the 1937 provincial elections. The strategy was to enter the legislatures to expose the act’s limitations and work from within to paralyze the British administration.
- A Massive Electoral Victory: The Congress campaigned vigorously on a highly progressive election manifesto promising agrarian reform and civil liberties. They achieved a stunning, massive victory, securing absolute, clear majorities in five provinces: Madras, United Provinces (UP), Bihar, Central Provinces, and Orissa.
- Forming the Ministries: After receiving vague assurances from the Viceroy regarding the Governors not actively misusing their veto powers, Congress initially formed ministries in seven provinces in July 1937 (the five majority provinces, plus forming coalition governments in Bombay and the North-West Frontier Province). Soon after, they also formed a coalition government in Assam, taking the total to eight.
- The 28-Month Rule: The Congress ministries functioned for approximately 28 months. Despite immense financial constraints, they achieved significant administrative successes. They passed crucial legislation regarding tenancy rights, aggressively promoted primary education and public health, massively released political prisoners, and drastically rolled back oppressive British press restrictions, proving Indians were fully capable of governance.
π Political Parties β’ Forward Bloc
Q.20) Due to ideological differences with the Congress high command and Mahatma Gandhi, Subhas Chandra Bose resigned as INC President in 1939 and founded which new radical party?
Ans > The Forward Bloc
- The Resignation Aftermath: Following the bitter Tripuri crisis where the Gandhi-aligned Congress Working Committee actively non-cooperated with him, Subhas Chandra Bose realized he could not function effectively as President. He officially resigned from the presidency of the Indian National Congress in April 1939.
- Formation of a Radical Wing: Almost immediately, in May 1939, Bose founded the ‘Forward Bloc’. Crucially, this was not initially a separate political party, but rather a radical, left-wing faction operating entirely within the broader framework of the Congress party.
- Ideology and Objectives: The primary objective of the Forward Bloc was to rapidly consolidate all the scattered leftist, socialist, and radical youth elements within the Congress. Bose argued fiercely against the High Command’s policy of cautious compromise. He demanded an uncompromising, immediate mass struggle against British rule, taking advantage of the looming crisis of World War II.
- Expulsion from Congress: The Congress High Command, heavily influenced by Gandhi, viewed the Forward Bloc’s aggressive, independent mass protests as a gross violation of party discipline. In August 1939, Bose was officially subjected to disciplinary action, completely removed from his position as President of the Bengal Provincial Congress Committee, and banned from holding any executive office for three years, cementing the split.
π Indian National Congress β’ Tripuri Crisis
Q.21) In the highly contested 1939 Tripuri Congress presidential election, Subhas Chandra Bose defeated which candidate backed by Mahatma Gandhi?
Ans > Pattabhi Sitaramayya
- The Re-election Controversy: In early 1939, Subhas Chandra Bose, representing the militant youth and leftist elements, decided to run for a second consecutive term as Congress President. This was highly unusual and fiercely opposed by the old-guard Congress High Command (including Sardar Patel and Rajendra Prasad), who preferred a unanimous selection of a moderate leader.
- Gandhi’s Candidate: When Maulana Abul Kalam Azad withdrew from the race, Mahatma Gandhi openly and explicitly threw his massive political weight behind Dr. Pattabhi Sitaramayya, a senior leader from Andhra. The election became a direct, high-stakes ideological battle between the radical left (Bose) and the Gandhian right-wing.
- A Stunning Defeat: In the fiercely contested election held in January 1939, Subhas Chandra Bose secured a stunning victory, winning 1,580 votes against Sitaramayya’s 1,377 votes. This was a massive shock to the establishment, proving the immense popularity of Bose’s radical agenda among the grassroots Congress delegates.
- The Tripuri Deadlock: Mahatma Gandhi took the result as a deep, personal repudiation, famously declaring that “Sitaramayya’s defeat is more mine than his.” At the subsequent Tripuri session, Gandhi’s loyalists in the Working Committee (including Patel) resigned en masse, creating a severe constitutional deadlock. They refused to cooperate with Bose, ultimately forcing his tearful resignation in April 1939.
π British Policies β’ August Offer
Q.22) In an attempt to secure Indian cooperation during World War II, the British Government issued the ‘August Offer’ in 1940. Which Viceroy made this offer?
Ans > Lord Linlithgow
- Wartime Desperation: By the summer of 1940, the geopolitical situation was incredibly grim for the British. France had fallen to Nazi Germany, and the Battle of Britain was raging. Desperate for unconditional Indian political and material support for the war effort, Viceroy Lord Linlithgow issued a major statement on August 8, 1940, known as the ‘August Offer’.
- The Right to Frame a Constitution: The August Offer was historically highly significant. For the very first time, the British government explicitly conceded the inherent right of Indians to frame their own constitution. It promised to set up a representative Indian constitution-making body, but strictly only *after* the conclusion of the World War.
- Dominion Status & Executive Expansion: The offer reiterated that the ultimate goal for India was ‘Dominion Status’ (a concept the Congress had rejected a decade prior). As an immediate concession, it proposed heavily expanding the Viceroy’s Executive Council to include a majority of Indian members, though the crucial portfolios of defense and finance would remain with the British.
- The Minority Veto: Crucially, the offer included a clause stating that no future constitutional framework would be adopted if it were strongly opposed by large minority elements. This was widely seen as handing a permanent veto power directly to Jinnah and the Muslim League, encouraging their separatist demands. Consequently, the Congress totally rejected the offer.
π Freedom Struggle β’ Individual Satyagraha
Q.23) Rejecting the August Offer, Mahatma Gandhi launched the Individual Satyagraha in 1940. Who was the first person chosen by Gandhi to offer this satyagraha?
Ans > Acharya Vinoba Bhave
- The Strategy of Limited Protest: Following the outright rejection of the August Offer, the Congress was in a dilemma. They wanted to protest the British dragging India into a devastating war without consent, but Gandhi was strictly against launching a chaotic mass movement that could invite brutal wartime repression or embarrass the British while they were fighting fascism.
- Symbolic Moral Defiance: To solve this, Gandhi devised the ‘Individual Satyagraha’. Instead of mass protests, carefully handpicked, highly disciplined individuals would publicly court arrest. The core demand was not immediate independence, but rather the fundamental civil right to freedom of speechβspecifically, the right to publicly declare opposition to the war effort.
- The Chosen Satyagrahis: Mahatma Gandhi personally selected the individuals based on their absolute commitment to non-violence. He chose his deeply spiritual and devoted disciple, Acharya Vinoba Bhave, to be the very first satyagrahi. Vinoba Bhave initiated the campaign in October 1940 by making an anti-war speech in a village near Wardha and was immediately arrested.
- Expansion of the Movement: Jawaharlal Nehru was selected as the second satyagrahi, and a relatively unknown ashramite, Brahma Datt, was the third. Soon, the movement expanded significantly. By 1941, over 25,000 Congress leaders, including most former provincial ministers and legislators, had courted arrest and filled British jails, effectively registering India’s moral protest to the world.
π British Missions β’ Cripps Mission
Q.24) The Cripps Mission was sent to India in 1942 to break the political deadlock. What was its primary objective?
Ans > To secure full Indian cooperation for the British war effort in World War II
- The Threat on the Eastern Border: By early 1942, the military situation in Asia had deteriorated drastically for the Allies. The Imperial Japanese Army had rapidly swept through Southeast Asia, capturing the impregnable British fortress of Singapore and occupying Rangoon (Burma). A full-scale Japanese invasion of India seemed highly imminent.
- Massive International Pressure: British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, a staunch imperialist who despised the idea of Indian independence, was forced to act. Massive pressure from US President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Chinese leader Chiang Kai-shek compelled him to find a political compromise to ensure the Indian population supported the Allied war effort.
- The Arrival of Sir Stafford Cripps: In March 1942, Churchill dispatched Sir Stafford Cripps, a left-wing Labour politician who was known to be highly sympathetic to the Indian cause and a personal friend of Nehru, to New Delhi with a set of new constitutional proposals to break the political deadlock.
- The Core Proposals: The mission’s primary objective was strictly wartime cooperation. In exchange for this support, Cripps proposed the creation of a new Indian Union with Dominion status, and promised that a constituent assembly (composed solely of Indians) would be convened to frame a new constitution, but crucially, only *after* the war had ended.
π Freedom Struggle β’ Cripps Mission Rejection
Q.25) Which Indian leader famously rejected the proposals of the Cripps Mission by calling it a “post-dated cheque on a crashing bank”?
Ans > Mahatma Gandhi
- The Crux of the Rejection: The Cripps proposals offered grand promises for the future but yielded absolutely no immediate, real power to Indians in the present. The British steadfastly refused to hand over control of the Defense portfolio to an Indian member of the Viceroy’s council during the war, which the Congress deemed unacceptable.
- The Famous Quote: Mahatma Gandhi was deeply unimpressed with the vague promises of future Dominion status. He famously dubbed the entire Cripps offer as a “post-dated cheque.” (Historical accounts suggest someone else, possibly a journalist or Nehru, added the biting phrase “on a crashing bank,” referring to the widespread belief that the British Empire was on the verge of total collapse due to Japanese victories).
- The Blueprint for Balkanization: Another major reason for rejection was a deeply sinister clause in the proposals. It explicitly gave any British Indian province the right to completely ‘opt-out’ of the proposed Indian Union and form a separate dominion. The Congress leadership rightly viewed this as a clear, formal British blueprint for the future balkanization of India and an indirect concession to the Muslim League’s demand for Pakistan.
- The End of Compromise: The total failure of the Cripps Mission was a turning point. It convinced the Indian leadership, particularly Gandhi, that the British were not sincere about transferring power and were simply playing for time. This bitter realization directly paved the way for the militant ‘Quit India’ movement just months later.
π Quit India Movement β’ Resolution
Q.26) The historic ‘Quit India’ Resolution, launching the final mass struggle for independence, was passed by the Congress Working Committee on August 8, 1942, in which city?
Ans > Bombay
- The Final Push: Frustrated by the failure of the Cripps Mission and fearing that the British would simply abandon India to the invading Japanese (as they had done in Malaya and Burma), Gandhi’s mood shifted dramatically from accommodation to absolute militancy. He demanded the immediate, orderly withdrawal of the British from India.
- The AICC Session in Bombay: The All India Congress Committee (AICC) met at the Gowalia Tank Maidan in Bombay (now respectfully known as August Kranti Maidan). On August 8, 1942, they officially ratified the historic ‘Quit India’ Resolution, formally sanctioning a massive, nationwide, non-violent mass struggle on the widest possible scale.
- The “Do or Die” Mantra: That evening, Gandhi delivered arguably the greatest speech of his life, lasting over two hours. He famously told the massive crowds, “Here is a mantra, a short one, that I give you… The mantra is: ‘Do or Die’. We shall either free India or die in the attempt; we shall not live to see the perpetuation of our slavery.”
- Operation Zero Hour: The British response was incredibly swift and ruthless. Before the sun rose on August 9, in an operation codenamed ‘Zero Hour’, heavily armed police arrested Gandhi, Nehru, Patel, Azad, and the entire top-tier Congress leadership. They were whisked away to unknown prisons, leaving the massive movement entirely leaderless, spontaneous, and extremely volatile.
π Quit India Movement β’ Underground Activities
Q.27) During the Quit India Movement, when the senior leadership was arrested, an underground radio station was secretly operated to broadcast nationalist messages. Who played a key role in running it?
Ans > Usha Mehta
- The Need for Communication: With the entire senior Congress leadership jailed and the British imposing draconian censorship on all newspapers, there was a massive information vacuum. The British desperately tried to project that the movement had been crushed. To counter this propaganda, a group of daring young activists established an underground communication network.
- The Secret Congress Radio: Usha Mehta, a 22-year-old brilliant student activist in Bombay, was the driving force behind the ‘Secret Congress Radio’. Operating on the 42.34-meter band, the station famously commenced its illicit broadcasts on August 27, 1942, with the thrilling words: “This is the Congress Radio calling on (a wavelength of) 42.34 meters from somewhere in India.”
- Cat and Mouse with the Police: To evade detection by sophisticated British radio direction-finding vans, Usha Mehta and her associates constantly, frantically moved their heavy transmitting equipment from one secret location to another across Bombay almost every single night.
- Impact and Capture: The radio station was incredibly effective. It broadcast uncensored news of brutal police atrocities, relayed crucial instructions from underground socialist leaders like Ram Manohar Lohia, and kept the flame of the rebellion burning. The operation ran successfully for nearly three months until November 1942, when the police finally tracked their location, raided the premises, and arrested Usha Mehta.
π Quit India Movement β’ Parallel Governments
Q.28) In several places, the British administration was completely paralyzed during the Quit India Movement, leading to the establishment of parallel governments. Who led the famous ‘Jatiya Sarkar’ in Tamluk (Midnapore)?
Ans > Satish Chandra Samanta
- Collapse of British Authority: The Quit India movement was so intensely fierce in certain rural pockets that the British civil administration completely collapsed. Nationalist leaders moved in to fill the vacuum, effectively declaring independence and establishing their own functioning, parallel governments (Prati Sarkar). Notable ones included Ballia in UP and Satara in Maharashtra.
- The Tamralipta Jatiya Sarkar: In the Tamluk sub-division of the Midnapore district in Bengal, the legendary ‘Tamralipta Jatiya Sarkar’ (National Government) was established in December 1942. It was primarily organized and led by the veteran nationalist Satish Chandra Samanta.
- A Fully Functioning State: This was not just a symbolic protest; it was a highly organized administrative apparatus. The Jatiya Sarkar set up its own parallel police force, organized an armed militia known as the ‘Vidyut Vahini’ (Lightning Corps) commanded by Sushil Kumar Dhara, collected taxes, and ran efficient arbitration courts (Nyayalay) to settle local disputes.
- The Martyrdom of Matangini Hazra: The Midnapore struggle is deeply remembered for the ultimate sacrifice of Matangini Hazra. A 73-year-old widow affectionately known as ‘Gandhi Buri’ (Old Lady Gandhi), she was brutally shot dead by British police in September 1942 while bravely leading a massive procession holding the tricolor flag to capture the Tamluk police station. The Jatiya Sarkar functioned independently until September 1944.
π Indian National Army β’ Formation
Q.29) The Indian National Army (INA), formed to fight the British with Japanese assistance, was originally conceived in Malaya by which former British Indian Army officer?
Ans > Captain Mohan Singh
- The Fall of Malaya and Singapore: During the rapid, devastating Japanese invasion of Malaya and Singapore in late 1941 and early 1942, tens of thousands of soldiers belonging to the British Indian Army were forced to surrender. They were abandoned by their British officers and left as Prisoners of War (POWs) under Japanese control.
- The Genesis of the Idea: The original concept of raising a liberation army from these demoralized POWs was conceived by Captain Mohan Singh, an officer of the 1/14th Punjab Regiment. He was heavily persuaded by Major Iwaichi Fujiwara, a Japanese intelligence officer, and Giani Pritam Singh, a prominent Indian nationalist living in Southeast Asia.
- The First INA Takes Shape: Capt. Mohan Singh argued that rather than suffering in Japanese POW camps, the Indian soldiers should take up arms to liberate their homeland from British rule. Following the catastrophic fall of Singapore in February 1942, approximately 40,000 Indian POWs officially agreed to join the newly formed Indian National Army under his command.
- Collapse and Revival: This ‘First INA’ was ultimately short-lived. Severe disagreements erupted between Mohan Singh and the Japanese military command over the size, deployment, and autonomy of the INA. Fearing the Japanese were using them merely as pawns, Mohan Singh ordered the INA to disband in December 1942, leading to his immediate arrest by the Japanese. The movement languished until the explosive arrival of Subhas Chandra Bose the following year.
π Indian National Army β’ Provisional Government
Q.30) Subhas Chandra Bose famously established the Provisional Government of Free India (Azad Hind) on October 21, 1943, in which city?
Ans > Singapore
- The Arrival of Netaji: After incredibly daring, perilous submarine journeys escaping from house arrest in Calcutta, traveling through Germany and Madagascar, Subhas Chandra Bose finally arrived in Southeast Asia in 1943. He immediately took charge of the faltering Indian Independence League from the aging Rash Behari Bose and brilliantly revitalized the Indian National Army (Azad Hind Fauj).
- The Declaration of Independence: Recognizing the absolute necessity of a formal political structure to legitimize an armed struggle, Bose took a monumental step. On October 21, 1943, in the packed Cathay Cinema Hall in Singapore, he formally proclaimed the establishment of the Provisional Government of Free India (Arzi Hukumat-e-Azad Hind).
- A Functioning State Apparatus: This was not merely a government in exile. The Azad Hind government functioned like a sovereign state. It possessed its own robust army (the INA), issued its own currency notes and postage stamps, established a civil code, and notably created a dedicated women’s combat regiment named the Rani of Jhansi Regiment, led by Captain Lakshmi Sahgal.
- International Recognition and War: The provisional government immediately gained high-level international diplomatic recognition from nine Axis powers, including Imperial Japan, Nazi Germany, and Fascist Italy. The Japanese officially handed over nominal authority of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands to Bose’s government. Shortly after its formation, the Azad Hind government officially declared war on Great Britain and the United States, marching toward the Indian borders with the rallying cry “Chalo Delhi!”
π Quick Summary β Modern History Set 57
- Nehru Report (1928): Drafted by Motilal Nehru, it demanded Dominion Status for India.
- Jinnah’s Response: Muhammad Ali Jinnah rejected the report and proposed his “14 points” in 1929.
- Lahore Session (1929): The INC declared Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence) as its goal.
- Lahore President: Jawaharlal Nehru presided over the historic 1929 session.
- First Independence Day: Symbolically celebrated all over India on January 26, 1930.
- Salt March (Dandi): Gandhi launched the movement on March 12, 1930.
- Dandi Duration: Gandhi and 78 followers walked 240 miles over exactly 24 days.
- Tamil Nadu Satyagraha: C. Rajagopalachari led the march from Trichinopoly to Vedaranyam.
- Red Shirts: Organized in the NWFP by ‘Frontier Gandhi’, Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan.
- Naga Revolt: 13-year-old Rani Gaidinliu bravely rebelled against the British.
- First RTC: Boycotted entirely by the Indian National Congress in 1930.
- Gandhi-Irwin Pact: Signed in March 1931, temporarily suspending Civil Disobedience.
- Second RTC (1931): Gandhi attended as the sole representative of the INC in London.
- Communal Award (1932): Announced by British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald.
- Poona Pact Outcome: Replaced separate electorates with reserved seats in joint electorates.
- Poona Pact Signatories: Negotiated and signed by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar for the depressed classes.
- Govt of India Act 1935 (Center): Proposed the establishment of an All India Federation.
- Govt of India Act 1935 (Provinces): Abolished dyarchy and introduced Provincial Autonomy.
- 1937 Elections: The INC swept the polls and formed ministries in seven provinces initially.
- Forward Bloc: Founded by Subhas Chandra Bose in 1939 after resigning as INC President.
- Tripuri Crisis (1939): SC Bose defeated Gandhi’s candidate, Pattabhi Sitaramayya.
- August Offer (1940): Issued by Viceroy Lord Linlithgow to secure Indian cooperation in WWII.
- Individual Satyagraha: Acharya Vinoba Bhave was the first person chosen by Gandhi in 1940.
- Cripps Mission (1942): Aimed to secure full Indian cooperation for the British war effort.
- Post-Dated Cheque: Mahatma Gandhi’s famous description of the Cripps Mission proposals.
- Quit India Resolution: Passed by the CWC on August 8, 1942, in Bombay.
- Secret Radio: Usha Mehta operated the underground radio during the Quit India Movement.
- Parallel Government: Satish Chandra Samanta led the ‘Jatiya Sarkar’ in Tamluk.
- INA Formation: Originally conceived by Captain Mohan Singh in Malaya (1942).
- Azad Hind Government: Formed by Subhas Chandra Bose in Singapore on October 21, 1943.
Timer β³
20:00
Progress (0/30)
Click any card to flip and reveal the summarized answer!
Smart Review: Questions you got wrong appear here for focused study.