Medieval History Set 25
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π Delhi Sultanate β’ Balban
Q.1) Before ascending the throne in 1265, Balban managed to sideline his rivals and began assuming royal privileges. Which specific royal insignia did he assume before officially becoming Sultan?
Ans > The Chhatr (Royal umbrella)
- Context of Power: Following the death of Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud in 1265, Balban, who was already acting as the powerful Naib (deputy), began his final maneuvers to legally secure the throne of Delhi.
- Consolidation phase: He systematically cleared the political landscape by eliminating his remaining rivals within the powerful group of Turkish nobles known as the Chahalgani (the Forty), centralizing absolute authority around himself.
- Significance of the Chhatr: In deeply rooted Persianate and Islamic traditions, the Chhatr (Royal Umbrella) was a sacred symbol of absolute sovereignty and divine mandate, strictly reserved exclusively for the reigning monarch.
- Calculated Precursor: By publicly assuming the Chhatr while still technically a deputy, Balban visually broadcasted his supreme status and tested the loyalty of the nobles, executing a highly calculated precursor before formally sitting on the Takht (throne).
π Delhi Sultanate β’ Mongol Threat
Q.2) In 1297, a major Mongol threat to the Delhi Sultanate emerged from Trans-Oxiana, resulting in a series of campaigns against the forts defending Delhi. Who was the Mongol ruler of Trans-Oxiana at this time?
Ans > Dawa Khan
- Rise of the Khanate: During this volatile period, the powerful Chagatai Khanate based in Transoxiana was ruthlessly consolidated under the leadership of the aggressive Mongol ruler, Dawa Khan.
- Shift in Mongol Strategy: Being unable to successfully expand westward against the Il-Khanate of Iran, Dawa Khan shifted his strategic focus southwards, moving from mere plundering raids to a focused policy of territorial conquest in India.
- Initial Frontier Campaigns: Starting in 1297, Dawa Khan dispatched massive armies to systematically besiege and break the chain of strategic frontier forts located in the Punjab and Multan regions that protected Delhi.
- Sultanate Response: Alauddin Khalji immediately responded to this existential threat by dispatching his most capable generals, Ulugh Khan and Zafar Khan, leading to the pivotal Battle of Jalandhar where the Mongols were initially repulsed with heavy losses.
π Delhi Sultanate β’ Alauddin Khalji
Q.3) During the massive Mongol invasion under Qutlugh Khwaja in 1299, the Indian armies held their own against the invaders, but a famous general of Alauddin Khalji died in an isolated action. Who was this general?
Ans > Zafar Khan
- The 1299 Invasion: In 1299, a massive Mongol force estimated at 2,00,000 cavalry under Qutlugh Khwaja (Dawa Khan’s son) deliberately bypassed the frontier forts and marched directly upon the capital city of Delhi.
- The Battle of Kili: Alauddin Khalji was forced to pull out his garrison and meet the massive Mongol horde in open combat at the plains of Kili, just outside the capital, leading to a brutal, high-stakes confrontation.
- Heroic Charge: Zafar Khan, widely considered Alauddin’s most brilliant and fearless military commander, launched an impetuous but devastating cavalry charge that successfully broke the formidable Mongol left flank.
- Tragic Demise: Due to his aggressive pursuit, Zafar Khan was cut off and encircled by the Mongols. He died fighting heroically, allegedly because Alauddin and Ulugh Khan, harboring intense political jealousy, intentionally withheld crucial reinforcements.
π Delhi Sultanate β’ Balban
Q.4) Following Balban’s ruthless suppression of the Katehariya Rajputs, the historian Barani noted that certain iqtas were rendered safe and permanently freed from trouble. Which of the following correctly lists these iqtas?
Ans > Baran, Amroha, Sambhal, and Katehar
- Regional Instability: The fertile Doab and the heavily forested Rohilkhand region were hotbeds of continuous rebellion during the early Sultanate, heavily disrupting revenue collection and threatening the vital communication lines to Awadh.
- Policy of Blood and Iron: To pacify the fiercely independent Katehariya Rajputs, Sultan Balban deployed his infamous policy of “Blood and Iron,” ordering the wholesale clearing of deep forests where rebels historically sought refuge.
- Establishing Thanas: Balban systematically built military outposts (thanas) across these regions, heavily garrisoning them with loyal, battle-hardened Afghan soldiers and granting them tax-free lands to ensure permanent, localized military control.
- Permanent Pacification: The contemporary historian Barani specifically records that this brutal but effective campaign permanently secured the critical iqtas of Baran (modern Bulandshahr), Amroha, Sambhal, and Katehar, freeing them from uprisings for generations.
π Delhi Sultanate β’ Jalaluddin Khalji
Q.5) Which Sultan of Delhi was the first to clearly put forward the view that the state should be based on the willing support of the governed, and thus could not be a truly Islamic state due to the Hindu majority?
Ans > Jalaluddin Khalji
- The Khalji Revolution: The ascension of Jalaluddin Khalji in 1290 marked the end of the Ilbari Turkish monopoly on power, bringing a broader base of Indian Muslims and Khaljis into the Sultanate’s administrative framework.
- A Pragmatic Ruler: Unlike the ruthless, iron-fisted governance of Balban, Jalaluddin was noted for his exceptionally mild, forgiving, and deeply pragmatic approach to statecraft, often pardoning rebels and defeated enemies.
- Willing Support: He was the absolute first Sultan of Delhi to explicitly articulate the modern political theory that a stable state must ultimately rest upon the willing support and toleration of the people it governs.
- Demographic Reality: Jalaluddin openly acknowledged the demographic reality that ruling a massive Hindu majority meant establishing a strict, orthodox Islamic state (enforcing pure Sharia) was practically impossible and politically suicidal in the Indian context.
π Delhi Sultanate β’ Alauddin Khalji
Q.6) Under Alauddin Khalji’s strict market regulations, what was the fixed price of a tattu (pony) that was not fit for the army?
Ans > 10 to 25 tankas
- Military Necessity: Alauddin desperately needed to maintain an unimaginably large standing army to defend against the relentless Mongol invasions and conquer the Deccan, but he could not afford to drain the state treasury.
- The Diwan-i-Riyasat: To solve this, he created a massive economic framework controlled by the *Diwan-i-Riyasat*, ruthlessly fixing the maximum retail prices of every single commodity in Delhi, from basic grain to expensive war horses.
- Grading the Horses: The state meticulously categorized horses into three specific grades: A first-grade warhorse imported for heavy cavalry was strictly capped at 100 to 120 tankas, ensuring soldiers weren’t financially ruined equipping themselves.
- The Price of a Tattu: At the very bottom of this strict grading scale was the *tattu* (a small, indigenous pony deemed completely unfit for military service), the price of which was tightly fixed between 10 to 25 tankas.
π Delhi Sultanate β’ Alauddin Khalji
Q.7) To ensure that Delhi became a premier market for fine cloth, Alauddin Khalji advanced large sums of money to merchants from which specific region to bring high-quality cloth to the capital?
Ans > Multani traders
- The Sarai Adl: Alauddin established the *Sarai Adl*, an exclusive, heavily guarded central market located directly inside Delhi, specifically dedicated to the trading of manufactured goods, costly textiles, sugar, and imported dry fruits.
- Financial Intervention: Because the state strictly fixed the retail prices of these luxury goods artificially low, independent merchants were highly reluctant to transport costly cloth to Delhi, fearing massive financial losses.
- Subsidizing the Multanis: To circumvent this, the Sultan provided enormous state subsidies and advanced massive sums (reported up to 20 lakh tankas) directly to the wealthy, well-established Multani traders operating on the frontier.
- Securing the Supply Chain: This calculated financial backing forced these expert merchants to act as state-sponsored procurers, ensuring a continuous, unbroken supply of high-quality silks and fine cotton from regions like Devagiri and Khurasan into the capital.
π Delhi Sultanate β’ Alauddin Khalji
Q.8) Alauddin Khalji was the first Sultan to pay his soldiers entirely in cash. While a regular cavalryman received 238 tankas a year, how much additional pay did a trooper who maintained two horses receive?
Ans > 78 tankas
- Shift to Cash Payments: Moving away from the traditional, decentralized system of granting land revenues (iqtas) to soldiers, Alauddin was the pioneering Sultan who paid his massive standing army directly in cash from the royal treasury.
- The Murattab Salary: The standard, heavily scrutinized annual salary fixed for a regular *Murattab* (a trained cavalryman equipped with a single state-approved warhorse) was exactly 238 silver tankas.
- The Do-aspa Allowance: Recognizing the strategic need for rapid mobility and cavalry reserves during battle, the state provided an additional, highly specific allowance of 78 tankas for a *Do-aspa* (a trooper maintaining two horses).
- Economic Synchronization: These precisely calculated salaries were exactly why Alauddin ruthlessly enforced his market price controls; he had mathematically determined that a soldier could only live comfortably on 238 tankas if inflation was artificially reduced to zero.
π Delhi Sultanate β’ Muhammad bin Tughlaq
Q.9) Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s introduction of a “token currency” was inspired by previous successful experiments in other empires. Apart from Qublai Khan of China, which Mongol ruler of Iran had experimented with it?
Ans > Ghazan Khan
- The Silver Crisis: During the 14th century, a massive global shortage of silver severely restricted trade and the ability of large empires to mint sufficient traditional coinage, forcing rulers to innovate alternative economic systems.
- The Token Currency Plan: Muhammad bin Tughlaq ambitiously attempted to introduce a fiat “token currency,” decreeing that heavily minted bronze and copper coins would hold the exact same legal tender value as the scarce silver tankas.
- International Inspiration: The Sultan did not invent this concept in a vacuum; he was heavily inspired by Qublai Khan’s highly successful paper currency (Chao) in China, and similar experiments conducted by Ghazan Khan, the Mongol Ilkhanate ruler of Iran.
- Failure in India: While the concept was economically sound, it failed disastrously in India because the state lacked the strict administrative machinery to prevent mass forgery, leading every household to act as an illegal mint.
π Delhi Sultanate β’ Muhammad bin Tughlaq
Q.10) During the early years of Muhammad Tughlaq’s reign, the Mongols under Tarmashrin burst into Sind and reached as far as Meerut. After defeating them near the Jhelum, which location did Muhammad Tughlaq temporarily occupy?
Ans > Kalanaur
- The Tarmashirin Invasion: Early in Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign (circa 1327), a massive and highly destructive Mongol invasion led by Tarmashirin of the Chagatai Khanate burst violently across the northwestern frontiers into Sind.
- Deep Penetration: Unlike previous raids, this massive horde bypassed the heavily fortified frontier cities and plundered deeply into the vulnerable agricultural heartland, reaching as far as Meerut in the fertile Doab region.
- Decisive Counter-Attack: Muhammad Tughlaq quickly mobilized his forces and launched a highly successful military counter-attack, decisively intercepting and utterly defeating the retreating Mongol army near the banks of the Jhelum river.
- Forward Frontier Policy: Following this massive victory, the Sultan adopted an aggressive forward policy, temporarily pushing the Sultanate’s borders beyond traditional defensive lines and successfully occupying strategic frontier outposts like Kalanaur and Peshawar.
π Delhi Sultanate β’ Muhammad bin Tughlaq
Q.11) Muhammad bin Tughlaq passed away while actively engaged in suppressing a rebellion in the distant corners of his empire. Where did he die?
Ans > In Sind
- An Era of Rebellions: The latter half of Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign was heavily plagued by continuous, widespread rebellions breaking out simultaneously across his vast empire, from Bengal in the east to Madurai in the deep south.
- Pursuing Taghi: The Sultan exhausted his final years constantly marching his royal army from one crisis to another. His last major campaign involved the relentless pursuit of a prominent rebel named Taghi through Gujarat.
- The Harsh Campaign: Taghi fled across the Rann of Kutch and sought refuge with the local chieftains in the incredibly harsh, arid, and politically volatile region of Thatta in the province of Sind.
- Death in the Desert: While actively commanding the siege operations in this unforgiving desert environment, Muhammad bin Tughlaq contracted a severe fever and died in 1351, leaving the army highly vulnerable and leaderless in enemy territory.
π Delhi Sultanate β’ Firuz Tughlaq
Q.12) Firuz Tughlaq adopted a policy to appease the nobility by abolishing the practice of torturing nobles and their officials under what specific circumstance?
Ans > If any balance was found against them at the time of auditing the accounts of their iqta.
- Legacy of Harsh Audits: Preceding rulers like Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad bin Tughlaq maintained absolute control over the nobility by routinely subjecting the *Muqtis* (Iqta holders) to ruthless audits by the central revenue ministry.
- Policy of Appeasement: Upon ascending the throne in a state of crisis, Firuz Shah Tughlaq realized he desperately needed the absolute political support of the nobility and the Ulema to solidify his somewhat contested claim to power.
- Abolishing Financial Torture: He formally abolished the deeply hated practice of inflicting severe physical torture on nobles and their accountants if an audit revealed that they owed outstanding revenue balances to the central treasury.
- Consequences of Leniency: While this policy successfully bought the immediate loyalty of the elite class, it directly led to massive, unchecked corruption, allowing nobles to treat state revenues as personal wealth and fundamentally weakening the empire’s financial core.
π Delhi Sultanate β’ Firuz Tughlaq
Q.13) Firuz Tughlaq ordered the public burning of a Brahman, charging him with which specific offense against the state and Islamic orthodoxy?
Ans > Preaching to the people, including Muslims, on the ground that it was against the sharia.
- Orthodox Pivot: Firuz Tughlaq’s reign represents a highly distinct shift towards conservative, orthodox Islamic policies, as he was heavily influenced by the powerful Ulema who had helped him secure the throne.
- The Accusation: A specific, highly publicized incident occurred involving a Brahman in Delhi who was formally accused of openly conducting idol worship and aggressively preaching his Hindu faith to the local population.
- Violation of Sharia: The orthodox theologians at the court argued fiercely that while *zimmis* were protected, it was a severe violation of the Sharia for a non-Muslim to preach to or attempt to convert Muslims.
- The Brutal Execution: Eager to demonstrate his strict adherence to orthodox Islamic law, Firuz Tughlaq upheld the theologians’ harsh verdict, resulting in the public execution by burning of the Brahman, ending the era of relative religious pragmatism.
π Delhi Sultanate β’ Firuz Tughlaq
Q.14) In line with his strict orthodox religious views, Firuz Tughlaq ordered the erasure of what specific decorative elements from within his own palace?
Ans > Beautiful wall paintings
- The Principle of Aniconism: Strict, orthodox interpretations of Islamic law (Sharia) heavily promote aniconism, which strictly prohibits the creation or display of images depicting sentient living beings (humans or animals) to prevent idolatry.
- Firuz’s Religious Austerity: As Firuz Tughlaq aged, he actively cultivated the image of a deeply pious, ideal Muslim sovereign, applying these strict religious injunctions directly to his personal life and the royal household.
- Erasing the Frescoes: In a highly symbolic act of religious purification, he issued a royal decree ordering the complete erasure and destruction of all the beautiful wall paintings (frescoes) that decorated the interior chambers of his palaces.
- Shift in Artistic Traditions: These figurative paintings were systematically replaced with intricate, orthodox decorative elements like abstract geometric patterns, floral arabesques, and Quranic calligraphy, fundamentally altering the artistic culture of the royal court during his era.
π Delhi Sultanate β’ Administration
Q.15) In the central administration of the Delhi Sultanate, the ariz-i-mamalik headed the military department but was NOT the commander-in-chief of the army. Why?
Ans > The Sultan himself commanded all the armed forces.
- The Diwan-i-Arz: The central military department of the Delhi Sultanate was the *Diwan-i-Arz*, formally established as an independent ministry by Balban specifically to bypass the overwhelming financial control of the Wazir.
- Role of the Ariz: The *Ariz-i-Mamalik* (the head of this department) carried immense responsibilities, serving as the chief logistical officer tasked with recruiting soldiers, inspecting horses, maintaining muster rolls, and disbursing monthly salaries.
- Bureaucratic Limitation: Despite managing the entire logistical backbone of the military apparatus, the Ariz was fundamentally a bureaucratic minister; he did not hold the supreme operational authority to lead campaigns or declare war.
- Absolute Royal Command: The absolute, unquestioned military command (Commander-in-Chief) was exclusively retained by the Sultan himself, a deliberate structural design to ensure the massive army remained directly loyal to the crown, preventing devastating military coups.
π Delhi Sultanate β’ Military
Q.16) Which Sultan of Delhi was the first to introduce the branding system (dagh) for horses to ensure soldiers did not bring poor-quality horses to the muster?
Ans > Alauddin Khalji
- The Military Fraud Problem: Prior to military reforms, pervasive corruption existed where Iqta holders and nobles would present weak, untrained ponies at the annual military muster, keeping the state-issued funds meant for high-quality warhorses.
- Introduction of Dagh: To completely eradicate this fraud, Alauddin Khalji introduced the strict, highly formalized *Dagh* (branding) system, where every state-approved warhorse was permanently branded with the royal insignia.
- The Huliya System: This was coupled with the *Huliya* or *Chehra* system, which involved maintaining incredibly detailed, written descriptive rolls of every single soldier in the army to prevent the fraudulent substitution of personnel.
- Strategic Impact: This ruthless administrative overhaul dramatically increased the genuine battlefield effectiveness of the Sultanate cavalry, ensuring Alauddin actually had the elite, heavy cavalry force necessary to repeatedly crush the invading Mongol armies.
π Delhi Sultanate β’ Administration
Q.17) The royal karkhanas and the personal comforts of the Sultan’s household were overseen by an important official who was also responsible for maintaining proper decorum at the court. What was his title?
Ans > Wakil-i-dar
- The Royal Household: The Sultan’s personal household was a massive, highly complex administrative sector within the government, encompassing the royal kitchens, massive stables, bodyguards, and the extensive network of state-run factories.
- Power of the Wakil-i-dar: The *Wakil-i-dar* was the chief dignitary and highest-ranking officer of this royal household, wielding immense, often unchecked personal influence due to his constant, daily physical proximity to the Sultan.
- Managing the Karkhanas: He meticulously managed the logistics and funding of the royal *karkhanas* (workshops) that produced everything the court required, from intricately woven royal robes and tents to highly specialized armor and weapons.
- Enforcing Court Protocol: Beyond logistics, the *Wakil-i-dar* was strictly responsible for enforcing the rigid, highly formalized court etiquette, seating arrangements, and decorum during royal durbars, which was absolutely crucial for projecting the terrifying majesty of the monarch.
π Delhi Sultanate β’ Administration
Q.18) In the local administration of the Delhi Sultanate, the empire was divided into provinces, which were divided into shiqs, and below them were the parganas. Who was the head of the pargana?
Ans > The Amil
- Administrative Hierarchy: The Delhi Sultanate established a highly structured administrative hierarchy to manage its vast territories: Empire -> Provinces (Iqtas/Subas) -> Shiqs (Districts) -> Parganas (Sub-districts) -> Villages.
- Role of the Pargana: The Pargana, comprising a specific cluster of agricultural villages, functioned as the most crucial, localized administrative and revenue-collection unit in the entire imperial structure.
- The Executive Head: The *Amil* (also known as the Amalguzar in later periods) was the chief executive official appointed to head the Pargana, with his primary mandate being the strict assessment and collection of land revenue.
- The Link to the Peasantry: The *Amil* worked intimately alongside local accountants (*Mushrifs*) and indigenous Hindu village headmen (*Muqaddams* and *Chaudhuris*), serving as the critical, direct administrative link between the rural peasantry and the central Turkish government in Delhi.
π Delhi Sultanate β’ Economy
Q.19) According to modern historians estimating the cost of living during the Sultanate, a family of four could live on five tankas a month under Firuz Tughlaq. Under Alauddin Khalji, what was the approximate daily wage of a skilled artisan?
Ans > 2 or 3 jitals
- Depressed Market Prices: Alauddin Khalji’s unprecedented market control policy artificially depressed the retail prices of virtually all commodities, ranging from basic foodgrains to luxury silks and slaves, specifically within the capital of Delhi.
- Standardized Low Wages: Because the cost of living was forcibly kept incredibly low by the state apparatus, wages across all professions were correspondingly standardized at very low rates. A highly skilled urban artisan earned merely 2 or 3 jitals a day.
- Monthly Equivalence: Since the standard currency system dictated that there were 48 copper/billon jitals in a single silver tanka, this daily wage amounted to a monthly income of roughly 1.5 to 2 tankas.
- High Purchasing Power: Despite this seemingly meager numerical income, the purchasing power of the jital during Alauddin’s reign was extraordinarily high, meaning an artisan could still comfortably sustain his family, standing in stark contrast to the inflationary periods of later rulers.
π Delhi Sultanate β’ Innovation
Q.20) The production of textiles and administration of the state were revolutionized by the introduction of paper-making by the Turks. According to the text, when and where had paper-making originally been discovered?
Ans > By the Chinese in the 2nd century
- The Chinese Invention: The revolutionary art of manufacturing true paper is historically attributed to Cai Lun in the imperial court of Han Dynasty China, occurring precisely around 105 AD (during the 2nd century).
- Westward Transmission: This highly guarded technology slowly filtered westward along the Silk Road trade networks, famously reaching the broader Islamic world following the Battle of Talas in 751 AD, where Chinese papermakers were captured by Arab forces.
- Introduction to India: The subsequent establishment of the Delhi Sultanate by the Turks facilitated the massive, widespread introduction of commercial paper manufacturing technology directly into the Indian subcontinent during the 13th and 14th centuries.
- A Bureaucratic Revolution: This technological transfer fundamentally revolutionized Indian society, rapidly replacing fragile palm leaves and highly expensive parchment, thereby facilitating the creation of a massive state bureaucracy, extensive land records, and the widespread proliferation of Persian historical chronicles.
π Delhi Sultanate β’ Economy
Q.21) Foreign and overland trade brought great wealth to Indian merchants in the Sultanate. According to Barani, which group of merchants in Delhi was so rich that nobles frequently borrowed money from them for feasts?
Ans > The Multani merchants
- The Financial Elite: The Multanis, comprising primarily of Hindu and Jain merchants originating from the strategic Multan region, formed an incredibly powerful and closely-knit financial network during the Sultanate period.
- Control of Trade Routes: They heavily dominated the lucrative, long-distance overland trade routes stretching deep into Central Asia and the Middle East, allowing them to accumulate vast, unprecedented reserves of liquid capital and bullion.
- The Extravagant Nobility: In stark contrast, the Turkish nobility, despite controlling highly lucrative Iqtas (land grants), were notoriously extravagant, constantly spending beyond their actual means on lavish royal feasts, massive patronage, and outfitting enormous military retinues.
- The Debt Cycle: The historian Barani bitterly notes that these powerful nobles were entirely dependent on the Multani *sahukars* (moneylenders) for massive loans, often pledging their future agricultural revenue assignments, effectively making the Multanis the true financial backbone of the Sultanate elite.
π Delhi Sultanate β’ Society & Religion
Q.22) The zimmis were protected non-Muslim subjects who paid the jizyah. Prior to the reign of Firuz Tughlaq, which specific group of Hindus had traditionally been exempted from paying the jizyah?
Ans > The Brahmans
- The Zimmi Status: Under classical Islamic law, *Zimmis* (protected non-Muslim subjects) were explicitly required to pay the *Jizyah* tax to the state in exchange for military protection and total exemption from forced military service.
- The Historical Exemption: Historically, the early Arab conquerors in Sind and the subsequent Turkish Sultans in Delhi had practically exempted the Brahman caste from paying this tax, respectfully treating them as impoverished ascetics or vital religious functionaries.
- Firuz’s Strict Interpretation: Firuz Shah Tughlaq, heavily influenced by the conservative Ulema, strictly reviewed all state policies against the literal, uncompromising text of the Sharia, seeking to run a purely orthodox Islamic state.
- Levying the Tax: Finding absolutely no explicit scriptural exemption for Hindu priests in the Sharia, he aggressively levied the Jizyah on all Brahmans, an act that sparked widespread protests and mass hunger strikes in Delhi until wealthy Hindu merchants agreed to pay the tax on their behalf.
π Delhi Sultanate β’ Architecture
Q.23) The early Turkish conquerors constructed the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque near the Qutub Minar. According to the text, the inner sanctum of this mosque was constructed by pulling down a former Hindu temple dedicated to:
Ans > Vishnu
- Symbol of Conquest: The Quwwat-ul-Islam (meaning “Might of Islam”) mosque was rapidly commissioned by Qutb-ud-din Aibak in 1193 AD specifically to commemorate the decisive Ghurid military conquest of Delhi and the establishment of Turkish rule.
- Demolition of Temples: To construct the massive edifice quickly and to visibly symbolize the new, dominant political order, Aibak ordered the immediate demolition of 27 existing Hindu and Jain temples located within the captured Qila Rai Pithora complex.
- The Vishnu Temple Foundation: The core structure and the main inner sanctum of the mosque were built directly upon the raised stone plinth of a large, prominent Hindu temple that was historically dedicated to Lord Vishnu.
- Architectural Synthesis: The resulting mosque’s architecture heavily features reused, richly carved indigenous temple pillars (with human or divine figures often deliberately defaced to comply with Islamic aniconism), creating a unique, striking synthesis of indigenous corbelled architecture with early Islamic courtyard layouts.
π Delhi Sultanate β’ Iltutmish
Q.24) When orthodox theologians approached Iltutmish to strictly enforce Muslim law by giving Hindus the option of “Islam or death,” his wazir rejected it as impractical, comparing the Muslim population in India to:
Ans > Salt in a dish of food
- The Fragile Garrison State: In the early 13th century, the newly established Delhi Sultanate was essentially a fragile, highly vulnerable military garrison state surrounded by a massive, openly hostile indigenous population.
- Orthodox Pressure: Hardline orthodox Islamic theologians continuously pressured Sultan Iltutmish to strictly apply the uncompromising Sharia injunction that polytheists and idolaters must be presented with the stark choice of “Islam or death.”
- Pragmatic Rejection: The highly practical Wazir, Nizam-ul-Mulk Junaidi, bluntly rejected this fanatical demand, acutely understanding the stark demographic reality that the ruling Muslims were a tiny, microscopic minority in the vast subcontinent.
- The Famous Simile: He powerfully used the simile that Muslims were currently “like salt in a dish of food” to illustrate their precarious position, explicitly warning that forcing mass conversions would trigger an overwhelmingly massive Hindu uprising that would completely obliterate the nascent Turkish state.
π Delhi Sultanate β’ Disintegration
Q.25) The severe disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate following the death of Firuz Tughlaq was famously mocked by a wit who claimed the dominion of the Sultan extended only from Delhi to Palam. What is Palam noted as in the text?
Ans > A village near the present airport of Delhi
- The Terminal Decline: Following the death of Firuz Shah Tughlaq in 1388, the mighty Delhi Sultanate rapidly entered a phase of terminal decline, severely exacerbated by endless succession civil wars and the devastating, apocalyptic invasion of Timur in 1398.
- Provincial Independence: Sensing the absolute weakness of the center, powerful provincial governors in incredibly wealthy regions like Gujarat, Malwa, and Jaunpur declared absolute independence, shrinking the empire’s borders drastically overnight.
- The Shrunken Realm: During the tragic reign of the later Tughlaq monarchs (like Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud), the central authority had collapsed so completely that the Sultan’s actual governing power barely extended beyond the immediate city walls of Delhi.
- The Ironic Couplet: A contemporary Persian couplet ironically mocked this pathetic, diminished state, hilariously stating that the dominion of the “Lord of the Universe” now only extended from Delhi to Palam (a nearby village where the modern Indira Gandhi International Airport is located).
π Delhi Sultanate β’ Early Expansion
Q.26) During the early expansion of the Delhi Sultanate under Iltutmish, a ruler named Iwaz assumed independence in Bengal and Bihar. What imperial title did he assume?
Ans > Sultan Ghiyasuddin
- The Rebellious Province: Bengal, primarily due to its extreme geographical distance from Delhi, its difficult, swampy riverine terrain, and its massive agricultural wealth, was famously known as “Bulgakpur” (the City of continuous Rebellion).
- Khalji Autonomy: While Sultan Iltutmish was heavily preoccupied consolidating his power in the volatile northwest against formidable rivals like Yaldoz and Qabacha, the independent-minded Khalji military commanders in Bengal operated with complete autonomy.
- The Rise of Iwaz: Following the brief rule of Ali Mardan Khalji, a powerful noble named Hisamuddin Iwaz Khalji ruthlessly seized control of the region, seeking to elevate Bengal from a mere province to an independent kingdom.
- Assuming Sovereignty: Iwaz openly defied Delhi by assuming full, unmitigated sovereign status. He ordered the reading of the khutba and the striking of coins exclusively in his own name under the highly grandiose imperial title “Sultan Ghiyasuddin.”
π Delhi Sultanate β’ Alauddin Khalji
Q.27) Alauddin Khaljiβs famous market control regulations were structured around three major specialized markets in Delhi. Which of the following was NOT one of these three markets?
Ans > The market for spices and perfumes
- Complex Regulation: Alauddin Khalji’s highly intricate price control system required massive, highly specialized administrative structures and brutal enforcement to successfully prevent black marketing, hoarding, and inflation in the capital.
- The Tripartite System: To efficiently manage this, he deliberately divided and categorized all trade by establishing three distinct, heavily guarded central markets within Delhi, each governed by specific state regulations.
- The Three Markets: The first market, the *Mandi*, was strictly for bulk foodgrains; the second, the *Sarai Adl*, was exclusively for costly cloth, manufactured goods, and sugar; the third market was dedicated entirely to the trading of horses, slaves, and cattle.
- Exclusion of Spices: While valuable spices, herbs, and perfumes were certainly heavily traded in the capital (most likely subsumed within the broader luxury trade of the *Sarai Adl*), they did not constitute their own separate, standalone major market category within his primary tripartite regulatory framework.
π Delhi Sultanate β’ Muhammad Tughlaq
Q.28) To ensure the rapid transmission of news and goods, Muhammad Tughlaq established an efficient postal system using relays of horses and runners. How did the human runners signal their approach to the next relay tower?
Ans > By continually clanging a bell as they ran
- Imperial Communication: Maintaining absolute political control over a massive, pan-Indian empire stretching from the Himalayas to the deep south required an incredibly fast, highly reliable intelligence and communication network.
- Expanding the Barid: Muhammad bin Tughlaq heavily expanded and modernized the *Barid* (postal) system, efficiently organizing it into two distinct tiers: the *Ulaq* (the mounted horse post) and the *Dawa* (the rapid foot post).
- The Dawa System: The foot runners (*Pyadas*) were stationed at fortified relay posts located exactly every one-third of a mile, enabling the exceptionally rapid, unbroken transmission of state letters and even luxury items (like fresh fruits from Khurasan).
- The Clanging Bell: To ensure zero delay during handoffs, the runner carried a special stick with a clanging bell attached to the top. The continuous, loud ringing alerted the next relay runner to stand fully prepared to grab the parcel and sprint immediately.
π Delhi Sultanate β’ Law & Justice
Q.29) Under the Delhi Sultanate’s judicial system, civil law based on the sharia was dispensed by the qazis. What formed the basis of criminal law?
Ans > Regulations framed for the purpose by the rulers
- A Dual Legal System: The complex judicial system of the Delhi Sultanate required a delicate balance between adhering to strict Islamic jurisprudence and the practical, often brutal necessities of ruling a volatile, multi-religious empire.
- Civil Adjudication: Routine civil matters, especially personal laws involving marriage, inheritance, and property disputes among Muslims, were strictly adjudicated by the appointed *Qazis* based directly on the classical Sharia and Islamic Fiqh.
- Limitations of Sharia: However, the Sultans quickly realized that orthodox Sharia criminal law (which historically required immense, often impossible evidentiary burdens for punishments) was entirely insufficient for maintaining strict state security and political order.
- The Zawabit Decrees: Therefore, criminal law and high state offenses (like treason or rebellion) were entirely governed by *Zawabit*βsecular state regulations and royal decrees framed independently by the Sultan. These allowed for rapid, brutal punishments like summary executions to instill terror and maintain absolute royal authority.
π Delhi Sultanate β’ Society & Religion
Q.30) Commenting on the resilience of the Hindu faith against forced conversion, the historian Barani used a picturesque simile, stating that the Hindus had discarded Islam from their hearts just as:
Ans > A hair is discarded while kneading flour
- The Conservative Critic: Ziauddin Barani, a highly prominent, conservative 14th-century court historian, was deeply critical of the perceived political leniency and religious tolerance shown to the Hindu majority by various Sultans.
- Observing Resilience: He acutely observed that despite centuries of overwhelming Islamic political and military domination, and occasional instances of intense state pressure, the core religious and cultural identity of the Hindu masses remained utterly unbroken.
- The Phenomenon of Reversion: Barani bitterly noted the widespread phenomenon where individuals who were nominally converted to Islam under severe political duress swiftly and entirely reverted to their ancestral religious practices the moment the immediate threat vanished.
- The Flour Simile: To graphically illustrate this complete, effortless rejection of the imposed faith, he used the vivid, rustic simile stating: “they have plucked Islam from their hearts as a hair is discarded while kneading flour,” highlighting the total nature of their resistance.
π Quick Summary β Medieval History Set 25
- Balban’s Insignia: Assumed the royal chhatr before officially taking the throne.
- Mongol Threat: Dawa Khan was the Mongol ruler of Trans-Oxiana invading in 1297.
- Zafar Khan: Famous general of Alauddin Khalji who died fighting Mongols in 1299.
- Safe Iqtas: Balban freed Baran, Amroha, Sambhal, and Katehar from Rajput trouble.
- Jalaluddin Khalji: First Sultan to advocate state support based on the governed (Hindu majority).
- Market Prices: A tattu (pony) cost 10 to 25 tankas under Alauddin Khalji.
- Fine Cloth Trade: Alauddin advanced money to Multani traders for Delhi’s cloth market.
- Cavalry Pay: A trooper with two horses received an extra 78 tankas under Alauddin.
- Token Currency: Muhammad bin Tughlaq was inspired by Ghazan Khan of Iran.
- Kalanaur Occupation: Muhammad Tughlaq occupied Kalanaur after defeating Mongols near Jhelum.
- Muhammad Tughlaq’s Death: Died in Sind while suppressing a rebellion.
- Firuz Tughlaq’s Audits: Abolished torturing nobles if an iqta balance was found against them.
- Orthodoxy: Firuz publicly burnt a Brahman for preaching against the sharia.
- Palace Decor: Firuz ordered the erasure of beautiful wall paintings in his palace.
- Military Command: The Sultan, not the ariz-i-mamalik, was the commander-in-chief.
- Branding (Dagh): Alauddin Khalji introduced the branding of horses.
- Wakil-i-dar: Official in charge of royal karkhanas and court decorum.
- Pargana Head: The amil headed the pargana in local administration.
- Artisan Wages: A skilled artisan earned 2 or 3 jitals daily under Alauddin.
- Paper-Making: Discovered by the Chinese in the 2nd century; introduced by Turks.
- Multani Merchants: Extremely wealthy group in Delhi who lent money to nobles.
- Jizyah Exemption: Brahmans were traditionally exempted before Firuz Tughlaq’s reign.
- Quwwat-ul-Islam: Formerly a Vishnu temple, converted into a mosque.
- Wazir’s Simile: Iltutmish’s wazir compared Muslims in India to “salt in a dish of food”.
- Sultanate Disintegration: A wit mocked that Firuz’s successors ruled only from Delhi to Palam.
- Iwaz of Bengal: Assumed independence with the title Sultan Ghiyasuddin.
- Alauddin’s Markets: Set up markets for foodgrains, cloth, and horses/slaves/cattle (not spices).
- Postal System: Human runners signaled their approach by clanging a bell.
- Criminal Law: Based on regulations framed by the rulers, unlike civil sharia law.
- Barani’s Simile: Hindus discarded Islam like “a hair is discarded while kneading flour”.
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