Himalayan Mountain System MCQs: Ranges & Divisions Quiz
The Himalayan Mountain System is a 2,400-to-2,500-km-long young fold mountain belt stretching along India's northern frontier between the Indus Gorge (Nanga Parbat, 8,126 m) in the west and the Brahmaputra/Dihang Gorge (Namcha Barwa, 7,782 m) in the east. Across its north-to-south profile, it comprises the Trans-Himalayan ranges, three parallel latitudinal belts—the Greater Himalayas (Himadri), Lesser Himalayas (Himachal), and Outer Himalayas (Shiwaliks)—and the eastern Purvanchal hills, while Sir Sidney Burrard's longitudinal classification divides the arc across river valleys into the Punjab (560 km), Kumaon (320 km), Nepal (800 km), and Assam (720–750 km) Himalayas.
- Extent & Syntaxial Bends: 2,400–2,500 km Arc | Nanga Parbat (West) to Namcha Barwa (East) | Width: 400 km → 150 km
- 3 Parallel Belts (N→S): Himadri (Avg 6,100 m) → Himachal (1,800–4,500 m) → Shiwaliks (600–1,500 m)
- Burrard's 4 River Divisions (W→E): Punjab (Indus–Satluj) → Kumaon (Satluj–Kali) → Nepal (Kali–Teesta) → Assam (Teesta–Dihang)
- Trans-Himalayas & Purvanchal: Karakoram, Ladakh, Zaskar, Kailash (North) | Patkai Bum, Naga, Manipur, Mizo Hills (East)
📌 Geomorphological Synthesis of the Himalayan Mountain System: Quick Summary & Study Notes
The Himalayan mountain system is a geologically young, active fold mountain belt spanning 2,400 km to 2,500 km across northern India, structured along intersecting latitudinal and longitudinal axes that govern regional climate, hydrology, and ecology.
- Tectonic Architecture and Extent: Formed 40 to 60 million years ago by the collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates, the range stretches between the Indus and Brahmaputra gorges with syntaxial bends anchored at Nanga Parbat and Namcha Barwa.
- East-West Structural Asymmetry: As the mountain belt narrows from 400 km in Kashmir to 150 km in Arunachal Pradesh, vertical slope gradients steepen and monsoon rainfall exceeds 200 cm in the eastern sector.
- Latitudinal Parallel Ranges: From north to south, the mountain wall steps down from the older Trans-Himalayas (3,000 to 5,000 m) through the crystalline Greater Himalayas (6,000 to 6,100 m), the Lesser Himalayas (1,800 to 4,500 m; 3,700 to 4,500 m in NCERT), and the unconsolidated Shiwalik foothills (600 to 1,500 m; 900 to 1,100 m in NCERT).
- Longitudinal River Divisions: Surveyor General Sir Sidney Burrard partitioned the arc from west to east using antecedent river valleys into the Punjab (560 km), Kumaon (320 km), Nepal (800 km), and Assam (720 to 750 km) Himalayas, flanked further east by the Purvanchal hills.
1. Tectonic Architecture & Spatial Extent of the Himalayas
| Structural / Spatial Attribute | Location / Geographic Group | Scale & Dimensional Metrics | Tectonic, Hydrological & Climatic Significance |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Geological Origin & Fold Structure | Convergent margin of the Indian & Eurasian Plates | Age: ~40–60 million years old (Tertiary Period) | Earth's most prominent active continent–continent collision zone; structurally composed of geologically young folded mountains (India's most recent landform alongside the Northern Plains, unlike the ancient Peninsular Block), forming an active and unstable seismic zone with towering relief (>8,000 m), steep slopes, and deep river gorges. |
| Main Mountain Arc & Frontier Shield | Entire northern border of India (Kashmir in NW to Arunachal Pradesh in NE) | Length: 2,400–2,500 km; Alignment: Convex WNW to ESE arc | Forms a continuous natural barrier separating the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau and Central Asia; blocks freezing Siberian winter winds from blowing south while trapping moisture-laden Southwest Monsoon winds to bring heavy northern rainfall. |
| Bounding Transverse River Gorges | West: Indus River Gorge; East: Brahmaputra (Dihang) Gorge | Demarcates the full 2,400–2,500 km west-to-east span | Both bounding rivers rise in the Tibetan Trans-Himalayas near the Kailash Range, where the Marium La pass separates the Indus headwaters from the Tsangpo (Brahmaputra) before they flow in opposite directions; the Indus courses between the Ladakh and Zaskar ranges before cutting south. |
| Western & Eastern Syntaxial Bends | West Anchor: Nanga Parbat (Kashmir); East Anchor: Namcha Barwa (near Arunachal Pradesh) | Nanga Parbat: 8,126 m; Namcha Barwa: 7,782 m (7,756 m) | Deep crustal compression around rigid peninsular promontories produces sharp southward hairpin turns (syntaxial bends) at both ends; beyond Namcha Barwa and the Dihang gorge, the range swings sharply southward along the India–Myanmar border to form the Purvanchal Hills. |
| Core Trans-Boundary Himalayan Nations | India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, and China (Tibet) | 5 primary nations sharing mountain ranges & river basins | Western extensions reach Pakistan, northern Trans-Himalayan slopes lie in Tibet, the central 800 km belt forms Nepal, and the eastern section covers Bhutan and northern India, linked ecologically and economically by the Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra river systems. |
| Broader Hindu Kush Himalayan Framework | Northern, northwestern & eastern mountain frontiers | 6 neighboring countries sharing mountain borders with India | Expands trans-boundary mountain linkages beyond the five core Himalayan states to include Afghanistan in the far northwest and Myanmar along the eastern Purvanchal hill frontier. |
2. East–West Structural & Climatic Asymmetry of the Himalayas
| Geomorphological / Climatic Parameter | Western Himalayan Sector | Eastern Himalayan Sector | Physical Driver & Regional Impact |
|---|---|---|---|
| Endpoint Territory & Latitudinal Width | Kashmir Region: ~400 km wide (broadest cross-section) | Arunachal Pradesh: ~150 km wide (regional range: 80 km to 300–400 km) | The 400 km western belt holds the three parallel Himalayan ranges plus broad Trans-Himalayan chains (Karakoram, Ladakh, Zaskar) and wide valleys, whereas across Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh the Shiwaliks and Lesser Himalayas are tightly compressed against the Himadri base. |
| Vertical Relief & Slope Gradient | Gradual altitudinal step-up across a 400 km base | Abrupt rise from the plains with steeper southern slopes | Horizontal narrowing is inversely correlated with vertical relief gradients; concentrating compressive tectonic forces across a narrow 150 km eastern belt produces substantially greater height (altitudinal) variations than in the west. |
| Annual Monsoon Precipitation | Progressively drier climate toward the northwest | Heavy Southwest Monsoon rainfall exceeding 200 cm (Assam Himalayas) | Proximity to the Bay of Bengal monsoon branch paired with the steep eastern mountain barrier forces rapid orographic uplift and intense monsoonal precipitation. |
| Erosion Regime & Snowline | Extensive glaciation, wider intermontane basins & lower snowline | Intense fluvial dissection, deep river gorges & higher snowline | Cooler, drier western sectors retain greater snow cover at lower heights, while fast monsoon-fed eastern rivers cut deep valleys and gorges across steep southern slopes. |
| Forest Cover & Foothill Basins | Temperate forests, alpine meadows (margs) & enclosed gravel Duns | Dense evergreen forests & open alluvial Duar floodplains | Heavy eastern rainfall sustains rich evergreen vegetation and replaces continuous Shiwalik ridges and enclosed western Dun valleys with well-drained sloping Duar piedmonts ideal for tea gardens and cinchona plantations. |
| Infrastructure & Service Delivery | Broader accessible valleys with moderate development costs | High public service & connectivity delivery costs | Steep, heavily dissected eastern terrain and >200 cm monsoon rains drive substantially higher infrastructure construction and public service delivery costs across eastern mountain states. |
3. Indian Himalayan Region (IHR): Governance, Ecology & Economy
| Assessment Domain | Indicator / Institutional Unit | Official Count / Metric | Territorial Scope & Socio-Ecological Significance |
|---|---|---|---|
| Administrative Total (NITI Aayog) | States & Union Territories in the IHR | 13 States & UTs (reorganized from 12 special category states) | Updated administrative framework following the reorganization of Jammu and Kashmir into two Union Territories: spans 2 Union Territories, 9 full mountain states, and 2 partial hill-district states. |
| Constituent States, UTs & NER Scope | Northwestern UTs, Full Hill States & Partial Hill Districts | 2 UTs + 9 Full States + 2 Partial States (8 NER states under MDoNER) | 2 UTs: Jammu & Kashmir, Ladakh.; 9 Full States: Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, Meghalaya.; 2 Partial States: Hill districts of Assam and Darjeeling–Kalimpong hills of West Bengal.; Broader NER (NITI Aayog / MDoNER): Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, and Tripura. |
| Spatial & Demographic Scale | National Landmass & Resident Population | 16%–18% of national landmass; ~50 million residents | Ecologically and hydrologically functions as the "Water Towers of Asia", sustaining snow- and glacier-fed river basins across South Asia. |
| Forest Cover & Biodiversity | Regional Forest Area & Floral Endemism | >41.5% geographical area forested; 32% plant endemism | Accounts for one-third of India's total forest cover spanning tropical, sub-tropical, temperate, sub-alpine, and alpine ecosystems; designated among the world's 34 Global Biodiversity Hotspots. |
| Primary Sector Livelihoods | Agro-Pastoral & Forestry Workforce | >80% of regional workforce | Local mountain populations rely directly on agriculture, animal husbandry, forestry, medicinal plants, and biodiversity-linked occupations. |
| Tourism GSDP Contribution | Accessible vs. Remote Eastern Mountain States | >10% GSDP (accessible); 2%–4% GSDP (remote east) | Largest service industry in the mountain states: exceeds 10% of GSDP in Uttarakhand, West Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya, and Tripura, but remains constrained at 2%–4% in Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and Nagaland due to rugged relief and high infrastructure costs. |
| Nodal Environmental Institute | G.B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment (formerly GBPIHED) | Established 1988 at Kosi-Katarmal, Almora (Uttarakhand) | Set up by MoEF&CC to advance sustainable development and environmental conservation across the IHR; acts as nodal agency for the National Mission on Himalayan Studies (NMHS) and partners with NITI Aayog, central universities, and state governments on springshed management and the "One Himalaya One Policy" report. |
4. Latitudinal (North-to-South) Divisions & Parallel Mountain Ranges
| Latitudinal Belt / Division | Relative Position (North to South) | Elevation Profile | Lithology & Structural Characteristics | Constituent Ranges & Major Summits |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Trans-Himalayas | North of the Greater Himalayas (across Ladakh & Tibet) | Avg. Elevation: ~5,000 m | Geologically older than the Himadri; positioned in a dry rain-shadow cold desert because the towering Greater Himalayas block southern monsoon clouds. | Branching from the Pamir Knot: Karakoram (hosts K2 / Mount Godwin-Austen at 8,611 m, world's 2nd highest peak), Ladakh, Zaskar, and Kailash (Tibet) ranges. |
| Greater Himalayas (Himadri / Inner Himalayas) | Northernmost & highest of the three main parallel ranges | Avg. Elevation: ~6,100 m (multiple peaks >8,000 m) | Crystalline inner core of granite and gneisses surrounded by metamorphic and sedimentary rocks; only range maintaining an unbroken continuous west-to-east wall; steep southern slopes, gentler northern slopes, and perennial snow cover. | Mount Everest (8,848.86 m), Kanchenjunga, Nanga Parbat (8,126 m), and Nanda Devi (7,816 m / 7,817 m). |
| Lesser Himalayas (Himachal / Middle Himalayas) | Middle parallel range: south of Himadri, north of Shiwaliks | Elevation: 1,800–4,500 m | Intensely compressed metamorphic rocks along with weak shale, limestone, and conglomerates; steep, rugged, densely forested southern slopes and gentler northern slopes with high-altitude lakes and meadows. | Pir Panjal (longest & most important range across J&K and HP), Dhauladhar (HP), and Mussoorie & Nag Tibba ranges (Uttarakhand). |
| Outer Himalayas (Shiwaliks / Sub-Himalayan Foothills) | Southernmost & lowest parallel range bordering the Northern Plains | Elevation: 600–1,500 m | Built of soft, unconsolidated fluvial deposits eroded from higher northern ranges; replaced in the Eastern Himalayas (Darjeeling, Sikkim, Bhutan) by sloping alluvial Duar topography. | Jammu Hills (Jammu) and tribal-named foothill ranges in Arunachal Pradesh: Aka, Dafla, Miri, Abor, and Mishmi Hills. |
| Purvanchal (Eastern Hills — Sub-Meridional Deflection) | South of Dihang gorge along the India–Myanmar border (north-to-south alignment) | Highest Peak: Blue Mountain (2,157 m) | Geologically linked to the Arakan Yoma mountains; composed of loose, fragmented sedimentary rocks including sandstone, shale, mudstone, and quartzite. | Patkai Bum (Arunachal Pradesh), Naga Hills (Nagaland), Manipur Hills (Manipur), Mizo / Lushai Hills (Mizoram), plus Tripura and Barail ranges. |
| Northwestern Five-Range Sequence | Complete north-to-south benchmark transect in northern India | Steps down from 8,611 m (K2) to 600–1,500 m foothills | Links the Trans-Himalayan chains across the Indus trough (flowing between the Ladakh and Zaskar ranges) to the Lesser and Outer Himalayan fold belts. | North to South Order: 1. Karakoram → 2. Ladakh → 3. Zaskar → 4. Pir Panjal (followed south by Dhauladhar) → 5. Shiwaliks. |
5. Landforms, Valleys, Passes & Settlements Across Himalayan Belts
| Himalayan Belt | Valleys, Lakes & Glaciers | Major Mountain Passes | Distinctive Landforms, Settlements & Land Use |
|---|---|---|---|
| Trans-Himalayas | Siachen Glacier; Indus River trough coursing between the Ladakh and Zaskar ranges | Aghil Pass, Khardung La, Marium La (Indus–Tsangpo headwater divide) | Forms the high-altitude rain-shadow cold desert of Leh and Ladakh (~5,000 m average elevation). |
| Greater Himalayas (Himadri) | Deep transverse river gorges; permanent snowfields & glaciers feeding the Ganga and Yamuna | Zoji La, Bara Lacha La, Shipki La, Lipulekh, Mana, Niti, Nathu La, Jelep La | Perennially snow-bound crystalline wall above the snowline serving as northern India's primary glacial water tower. |
| Lesser Himalayas (Himachal) | Tectonic valleys of Kashmir, Kullu, Manali, and Kangra; freshwater lakes around Nainital | Rohtang Pass (Himachal sector) | Upper slopes support grassy alpine meadows called margs in Kashmir; cool moderate altitudes (1,800–4,500 m) host major hill stations: Shimla, Mussoorie, Nainital, Almora, Darjeeling, Kalimpong, and Gangtok. |
| Outer Himalayas (Shiwaliks) | Flat-bottomed longitudinal Duns (Doons) between Lesser Himalayas & Shiwaliks: Dehra Dun (largest), Patli Dun | Transverse river water-gaps entering the Indo-Gangetic Plains | West: Thick river-washed gravel and soil deposits in enclosed Duns supporting major cities, farming, and research centers.; East: Open, well-drained alluvial Duar floodplains at the foothill base supporting tea gardens and cinchona plantations. |
| Purvanchal (Eastern Hills) | Freshwater Loktak Lake (Manipur Hills) | Trans-border ridge corridors along the India–Myanmar frontier | Manipur Hills enclose Keibul Lamjao, the world's only floating national park; Mizo (Lushai) Hills rise to Blue Mountain (2,157 m). |
⚖️ NCERT vs. Official Survey of India & Modern Geodetic Reconciliations (Exam Alert)
Competitive examinations (UPSC CSE, WBCS, State PSC, and SSC) routinely test peak elevations, territorial locations, and range classifications where older NCERT tables diverge from official Survey of India and modern bilateral geodetic datasets. Apply the reconciliation rules below based on the question framing:
| Feature / Summit | NCERT Textbook Figure | Survey of India / Modern Geodetic Data | Competitive Exam Resolution Rule |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Mount Everest | 8,848 m (Class 9 & 11 Ch. 2) | 8,848.86 m (2020 joint Nepal–China survey) | Select 8,848.86 m when decimal options appear; select 8,848 m in integer-only NCERT options. Straddles the Nepal–Tibet (China) border. |
| 2. Kanchenjunga | 8,598 m (Class 9 Ch. 2 table) | 8,586 m (Official Survey of India record) | Highest peak of the Himalayas proper in India (Sikkim–Nepal border). Both 8,586 m and 8,598 m are tested; match the option set provided. |
| 3. K2 vs. Kanchenjunga vs. Nanda Devi | Lists Kanchenjunga (8,598 m) & Nanda Devi (7,817 m) under Himalayan peaks | K2 / Godwin-Austen (8,611 m) in Karakoram (Ladakh UT / PoK); Kanchenjunga (8,586 m); Nanda Devi (7,817 m) | • Highest peak in India overall (Trans-Himalayan Karakoram): K2 (8,611 m). • Highest peak of the Himalayas proper in India: Kanchenjunga (8,586 m / 8,598 m). • Highest peak wholly inside undisputed Indian territory: Nanda Devi (7,817 m, Uttarakhand). |
| 4. Namcha Barwa | Misprinted under "India" at 7,756 m (Class 9 Ch. 2 table) | Located in Southeastern Tibet (China) at 7,782 m near the Dihang (Siang) Gorge | Geographically situated in Tibet (China) at the Eastern Syntaxial Bend immediately north of Arunachal Pradesh. |
| 5. Gurla Mandhata | Misprinted under "Nepal" at 7,728 m (Class 9 Ch. 2 table) | Located in Ngari Prefecture, Tibet (China) at 7,694 m near Lake Manasarovar | Lies entirely inside Tibet (China) north of the Kumaon–Nepal border. |
| 6. Dhaulagiri & Annapurna I | Dhaulagiri: 8,172 m; Annapurna: 8,078 m (Class 9 Ch. 2) | Dhaulagiri: 8,167 m; Annapurna I: 8,091 m | Both are eight-thousander massifs of the Greater Himalayas wholly inside central Nepal. |
| 7. Zanskar Range Classification | Grouped with Trans-Himalayan ranges in regional Indian geography | Structurally part of the folded Tethyan Himalaya south of the ITSZ | In standard regional PSC/SSC questions, group Zanskar with Trans-Himalayas; in structural geology questions, classify it under Tethyan Himalaya. |
6. Longitudinal (West-to-East) Regional Divisions (Sir Sidney Burrard's Classification)
| Longitudinal Division | Bounding River Valleys | Sector Length | Political & Territorial Coverage | Defining Geomorphology & Environmental Profile |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Taxonomic Basis & Gradient | Sliced across Indus, Satluj, Kali, Teesta & Dihang gorges | ~2,400 km total span (4 regional parts) | Standard Indian geographical model established in 1907–1908 | Proposed by Surveyor General Colonel Sir Sidney Burrard (published with geologist H. H. Hayden in A Sketch of the Geography and Geology of the Himalaya Mountains and Tibet); reflects a strong west-to-east gradient of increasing monsoon rainfall and decreasing snow cover. |
| 1. Punjab Himalayas (Kashmir / Himachal Himalayas) | West: Indus Gorge; East: Satluj Gorge | 560 km | Jammu & Kashmir, Ladakh, and Himachal Pradesh (Kashmir Himalayas in west; Himachal Himalayas in east) | Broadest regional division; bounded between the Zaskar range in the north and the Shiwaliks in the south across Karakoram, Ladakh, Zaskar, Pir Panjal, and Dhauladhar chains; distinguished by flat lacustrine Karewas, alpine margs, and wide tectonic valleys. |
| 2. Kumaon (Kumaun) Himalayas | West: Satluj (Sutlej) River; East: Kali River | 320 km (shortest sector) | State of Uttarakhand | Stands higher than the Punjab Himalayas; combines glaciated Greater Himalayan river headwaters with Lesser Himalayan Mussoorie and Nag Tibba ridges, longitudinal Dun valleys, and sacred alpine shrines. |
| 3. Nepal Himalayas (Central Himalayas) | West: Kali River; East: Teesta (Tista) River | 800 km (longest sector) | Nepal and eastern transition into Sikkim–Darjeeling Himalayas | Longest and highest Himalayan division concentrating the world's tallest summits; encompasses wide ancient lake-bed valleys and grades eastward near the Teesta into Duar plantation slopes. |
| 4. Assam Himalayas (Eastern Himalayas) | West: Teesta River; East: Dihang (Brahmaputra) River | 720–750 km | Sikkim, Darjeeling–Kalimpong hills (West Bengal), Bhutan, and Arunachal Pradesh | Lower overall average height than the Nepal section, characterized by narrow foothills, abrupt steep southern slopes, heavy Southwest Monsoon rainfall (>200 cm), strong river erosion, and tribal-named outer hill ranges. |
7. Sector-Wise Peaks, Glaciers, Drainage & Passes (West to East)
| Longitudinal Sector | Prominent Summits | Glaciers, River Drainage & Valleys | Strategic Passes, Shrines & Regional Landmarks |
|---|---|---|---|
| Summits across Karakoram, Ladakh, Zaskar, Pir Panjal & Dhauladhar (western anchor: Nanga Parbat, 8,126 m; K2, 8,611 m in Karakoram) | Indus & Satluj gorges; tectonic and glacial valleys of Kashmir, Kullu, Manali, Kangra, Lahaul, and Spiti; lacustrine Karewa terraces | Passes: Zoji La, Rohtang, Bara Lacha La, Shipki La; Landmarks: Kashmiri alpine meadows (margs) | |
| Kumaon (Uttarakhand) Sector | Nanda Devi (7,816 m / 7,817 m), Kamet, Trishul, Badrinath, Kedarnath, Mana, Shivling | Glaciers: Gangotri, Yamunotri & Pindari (sources of Ganga & Yamuna); Valleys: Dehra Dun & Valley of Flowers | Pilgrimage Towns: Badrinath, Kedarnath, Gangotri, Yamunotri & Hemkund Sahib; Passes: Lipulekh, Mana, Niti |
| Nepal (Central) Sector | Mount Everest / Sagarmatha (8,848.86 m), Kanchenjunga, Lhotse, Makalu, Dhaulagiri | Drainage: Ghaghara, Gandak & Kosi rivers; Lacustrine Valleys: Ancient lake basins of Kathmandu & Pokhara | Eastern Transition: Sikkim–Darjeeling Himalayas featuring Duar foothill slopes cultivated for tea gardens and cinchona |
| Assam (Eastern) Sector | Namcha Barwa (7,782 m), Kula Kangri (7,554 m), Chomo Lhari (7,327 m), Kangto (7,090 m) | Teesta & Dihang (Brahmaputra) gorges; intense monsoon-driven fluvial valleys (>200 cm annual rain) | Passes: Nathu La, Jelep La, Bum La, Tse La, Bomdi La, Diphu Pass; Tribal Foothill Ranges: Aka, Dafla, Miri, Abor & Mishmi Hills |
📖 Geomorphological Synthesis of the Himalayan Mountain System: Detailed Q&A
1. Module 1: Location and Geographical Extent
Geographical Location
Where are the Himalayas located in India?
The Himalayan mountain system stretches continuously along the entire northern boundary of India from the northwest to the northeast.
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- Northern Frontier Position: The Himalayan mountain system is located along the entire northern boundary of India, stretching continuously from the northwest to the northeast. It forms a massive natural barrier separating the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau and Central Asia.
- Arc-Shaped Alignment: Geographically, the mountains do not run in a straight line but form a sweeping convex arc that extends for approximately 2,400 km to 2,500 km across the northern edge of the country.
- Climatic Shield Function: Because of this strategic northern location, the Himalayas protect the Indian landmass from freezing winds blowing south from Siberia during winter while trapping moisture-laden Southwest Monsoon winds to bring heavy rainfall across northern India.
- Tectonic Junction: This location marks the convergent boundary where the Indian Plate continues to push northward against the Eurasian Plate, making the northern frontier a geologically young and active seismic zone.
Trans-Boundary Extent
In which group of countries is the Himalayan range mainly located?
The Himalayan mountain system is a trans-boundary range primarily spanning across India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, and China.
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- Trans-Boundary Mountain System: The Himalayas are not confined to a single nation; instead, the mountain ranges and their river basins share trans-boundary links across South and Central Asia, primarily spanning India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, and China (Tibet).
- Broader Hindu Kush Himalayan Context: Within the wider Hindu Kush Himalayan geographical framework, six neighboring countries share borders with India along its northern, northwestern, and eastern mountain frontiers, including Afghanistan in the far northwest and Myanmar along the eastern hills.
- Distribution of Major Sections: While the westernmost extensions reach into Pakistan and the northern Trans-Himalayan slopes lie in China's Tibet region, the central 800 km section forms Nepal, and the eastern section encompasses Bhutan and northern India.
- Shared River Systems: Major rivers such as the Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra originate near the Tibetan Trans-Himalayan zone and cut across these countries, linking their ecosystems and economies.
Administrative Divisions
How many States and Union Territories are in the Indian Himalayan Region?
The Indian Himalayan Region spans 13 Indian States and Union Territories, comprising two Union Territories, nine full mountain states, and two partial hill-district states.
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- Official NITI Aayog Count: According to NITI Aayog and the Government of India, the Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) is spread across 13 Indian States and Union Territories, covering 16% to 18% of India's landmass and home to nearly 50 million people.
- Two Union Territories: In the northwestern sector, following administrative reorganization, the region includes the two Union Territories of Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh. Prior to this bifurcation, the region was counted as 12 special category states.
- Nine Full Mountain States: The IHR encompasses nine complete mountain states: Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand in the west-central sector, along with Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, and Meghalaya in the northeast.
- Two Partial Hill-District States: In addition to the full mountain states, the IHR includes the hilly areas of two predominantly plains states—specifically the hill districts of Assam (Dima Hasao and Karbi Anglong) and the two hill districts of West Bengal (Darjeeling and Kalimpong).
West-East Span
The Himalayas are extended between Kashmir and which state in eastern India?
Within India, the main Himalayan mountain arc stretches continuously from Kashmir in the northwest to Arunachal Pradesh in the northeast.
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- Contrasting Widths at Extremities: Between these two endpoints, the mountain belt shows a marked change in width, measuring approximately 400 km wide in Kashmir and narrowing down to about 150 km in Arunachal Pradesh.
- Eastern Syntaxial Turn: In Arunachal Pradesh, the east-west alignment of the main Himalayan range ends near the Namcha Barwa peak, where the mountains cross the Brahmaputra (Dihang) gorge and turn sharply southward.
- Eastern Hill Extensions: South of Arunachal Pradesh, the mountain chain transitions into the lower Purvanchal hills, which run along the India-Myanmar border through Nagaland, Manipur, and Mizoram.
River Boundaries
Which two rivers mark the western and eastern borders of the Himalayas?
The main Himalayan arc is bounded by the deep gorges of the Indus River in the west and the Brahmaputra (Dihang) River in the east.
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- Transverse River Boundaries: The main Himalayan range runs for roughly 2,400 km to 2,500 km from west to east between the deep gorge of the Indus River in the west and the gorge of the Brahmaputra (Dihang) River in the east.
- Common Tibetan Origin: Both bounding rivers originate in the Trans-Himalayan region of Tibet near the Kailash Range, where the Marium La pass divides the Manasarovar–Indus (Satluj) watershed from the headwaters of the Tsangpo (Brahmaputra) before they flow in opposite directions.
- The Western Indus Gorge: In the northwest, the Indus flows between the Ladakh and Zaskar ranges before cutting a deep gorge around Nanga Parbat and turning southward toward the plains.
- The Eastern Dihang Gorge: In the northeast, the Tsangpo enters Arunachal Pradesh as the Dihang (Brahmaputra) River, carving a steep gorge around Namcha Barwa that marks the eastern end of the main Himalayan chain.
Eastern Himalayan States
Which group represents the main Eastern Himalayan states in India?
Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and the hill districts of West Bengal (Darjeeling and Kalimpong) constitute the core Indian territories of the Eastern Himalayas.
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- Core Eastern Himalayan States: In the geographical division of the Eastern (Assam) Himalayas between the Teesta and Dihang rivers, the primary Indian territories are Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and the northern hill districts of West Bengal (Darjeeling and Kalimpong), alongside Bhutan.
- Broader North-Eastern Region (NER): In developmental programs managed by NITI Aayog and the Ministry of Development of North Eastern Region (MDoNER), the wider eastern mountain region includes all eight North-Eastern states: Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, and Tripura.
- Distinctive Physical Relief: Unlike the western Himalayan states, the Eastern Himalayan states rise abruptly from the plains with very narrow foothills, experiencing heavy Southwest Monsoon rainfall above 200 cm and strong river erosion.
- High Service Delivery Costs: Because of steep, cut-up terrain and heavy monsoon rains, the cost of delivering public services and infrastructure in these eastern states is much higher than in other parts of the Indian Himalayan Region.
Latitudinal Width Variation
How does the width of the Himalayas change from Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh?
The Himalayan mountain belt tapers significantly from west to east, narrowing from about 400 km in Kashmir to 150 km in Arunachal Pradesh.
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- West-to-East Narrowing: The Himalayan mountain belt is much wider in the west and becomes narrower toward the east, tapering from about 400 km in Kashmir to 150 km in Arunachal Pradesh (with overall regional widths cited between 80 km and 300–400 km).
- Presence of Multiple Ranges in the West: The 400 km width in the Kashmir and Punjab sector holds not only the three main parallel ranges but also broad Trans-Himalayan chains including the Karakoram, Ladakh, and Zaskar ranges, along with wide valleys like Kashmir and Kangra.
- Compression of Ranges in the East: In the eastern sector across Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh, the Shiwalik and Lesser Himalayan ranges become tightly compressed against the base of the Greater Himalayas, reducing the total horizontal width to 150 km.
- Impact on Slope Steepness: Because the mountains reach high elevations over a much narrower base in the east, the southern slopes of the Eastern Himalayas are much steeper and show greater height variations than those in the west.
Syntaxial Bends
Which two peaks mark the western and eastern syntaxial bends of the Himalayas?
The sharp southward syntaxial bends of the Himalayas are anchored by Nanga Parbat in the west and Namcha Barwa in the east.
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- Concept of Syntaxial Bends: The west-to-east run of the Himalayas stops abruptly at both ends, where the mountain ranges make sharp southward turns known as syntaxial bends.
- Western Anchor at Nanga Parbat: The western syntaxial bend occurs near Nanga Parbat (8,126 m) in the Kashmir region, where the Indus River cuts a deep gorge and the mountains turn sharply southward.
- Eastern Anchor at Namcha Barwa: The eastern syntaxial bend is marked by the Namcha Barwa peak (7,782 m / 7,756 m) near Arunachal Pradesh, where the Brahmaputra (Dihang) River carves a deep gorge as it enters India.
- Formation of the Purvanchal Hills: After making the eastern syntaxial turn at Namcha Barwa, the Himalayan mountain chain swings southward along the India-Myanmar border to form the north-south aligned Purvanchal or Eastern Hills.
Forest Cover
What percentage of the Indian Himalayan Region is covered by forests?
Forests cover more than 41.5% of the geographical area of the Indian Himalayan Region, accounting for one-third of India's total forest cover.
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- Rich Forest Landscape: More than 41.5% of the geographical area of the Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) is covered by forests, making it a vital ecological zone for India.
- Share of National Forests: This vast mountain forest cover represents one-third of the total forest cover of India, supporting diverse climate zones ranging from tropical and sub-tropical foothills to temperate, sub-alpine, and alpine meadows.
- Global Biodiversity Hotspot: Due to its rich vegetation and varied climate, the IHR is recognized among the 36 (earlier 34) Global Biodiversity Hotspots of the world, with 32% of its plant species found nowhere else on Earth.
- Livelihood Dependence: These forests directly support local mountain communities, as more than 80% of the people in the IHR rely on agriculture, animal husbandry, forestry, medicinal plants, and other biodiversity-linked jobs.
Environmental Research Institute
Where is the G.B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment located?
The G.B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment is headquartered at Kosi-Katarmal in Almora, Uttarakhand.
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- Establishment and Location: The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC) set up the G.B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment (formerly GBPIHED) in 1988 at Kosi-Katarmal, Almora, in Uttarakhand.
- Core Institutional Mandate: The institute works with a clear goal to achieve sustainable development and environmental conservation across the entire Indian Himalayan Region.
- Nodal Agency Role: It acts as the nodal agency for the National Mission on Himalayan Studies (NMHS) run by the MoEF&CC, which focuses on solving environmental and development problems in the Himalayan states.
- Collaborative Policy Research: The institute partners with NITI Aayog, central universities, and state governments on major reports such as springshed management and the 'One Himalaya One Policy' report.
2. Module 2: General Classification and Divisions
Geological Structure
What type of mountains are the Himalayas by geological structure?
The Himalayas are geologically young fold mountains formed during the Tertiary Period by the collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates.
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- Geologically Young Landform: Compared to the ancient Peninsular Block of southern India, the Himalayas and the Northern Plains are the most recent landforms in India, formed during the Tertiary Period about 40 to 60 million years ago.
- Structurally Folded Architecture: They are called structurally fold mountains because strong horizontal pressure between the colliding Indian and Eurasian plates folded the rock layers into parallel mountain ranges.
- Unstable Geological Zone: From the viewpoint of geology, the Himalayan mountains form an unstable zone where tectonic plates are still active.
- Youthful Topographical Features: Their young geological age is shown by their high relief, towering peaks over 8,000 meters, deep river gorges, and steep vertical slopes.
Longitudinal Classification
Who divided the Himalayas into four regions based on river valleys?
Surveyor General Sir Sidney Burrard proposed the four-part longitudinal classification of the Himalayas based on transverse river valleys.
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- Pioneering Geographical Scheme: The regional or longitudinal classification of the Himalayas into four distinct sections was proposed by the British geographer and Surveyor General, Colonel Sir Sidney Burrard.
- Landmark Publication: Burrard and geologist H. H. Hayden published this standard summary in 1907–1908 in their famous book, A Sketch of the Geography and Geology of the Himalaya Mountains and Tibet.
- River Valleys as Boundaries: Burrard divided the mountain chain vertically from west to east using deep river valleys—the Indus, Satluj, Kali, Teesta, and Dihang—like knife cuts slicing across a long cake.
- Enduring Standard Classification: Burrard's four-part division—comprising the Punjab, Kumaon, Nepal, and Assam Himalayas—remains the standard model used in Indian geography today.
Regional River Divisions
Into how many parts are the Himalayas divided from west to east by rivers?
The west-to-east span of the Himalayas is divided by transverse river gorges into four distinct longitudinal regions.
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- Four Longitudinal Sections: In the longitudinal or regional classification, the 2,400 km west-to-east length of the Himalayas is divided into four main regional sections marked by river valleys.
- First and Second Western Sections: Moving from west to east, the first part is the Punjab (Kashmir/Himachal) Himalayas spanning 560 km between the Indus and Satluj rivers, and the second is the Kumaon Himalayas spanning 320 km between the Satluj and Kali rivers.
- Third and Fourth Eastern Sections: The third part is the Nepal (Central) Himalayas spanning 800 km between the Kali and Teesta rivers, and the fourth is the Assam (Eastern) Himalayas spanning 720 km to 750 km between the Teesta and Dihang rivers.
- Environmental Gradient Across Sections: These four longitudinal parts differ in height, rainfall, snow cover, and forest types, as rainfall increases toward the east while snow cover decreases.
Punjab Himalayas
Which longitudinal division of the Himalayas lies between the Indus and Satluj rivers?
The Punjab Himalayas stretch for 560 km between the Indus River gorge in the west and the Satluj River gorge in the east.
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- Location and River Limits: The Punjab Himalayas form the westernmost regional division of the Himalayas, stretching for 560 km between the Indus gorge in the west and the Satluj gorge in the east.
- Alternative Regional Names: Because this section covers Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, and Himachal Pradesh, it is also called the Kashmir Himalayas in the west and the Himachal Himalayas in the east.
- Prominent Mountain Ranges: This wide section spans the Trans-Himalayan Karakoram, Ladakh, and Zaskar ranges in the north down to the Pir Panjal, Dhauladhar, and Shiwalik ranges in the south.
- Distinctive Landforms: The region is known for flat lake deposits called Karewas, alpine meadows called margs, tectonic valleys like Kullu, Manali, Kangra, Lahaul, and Spiti, and passes like Zoji La, Rohtang, Bara Lacha La, and Shipki La.
Kumaon Himalayas
Between which two rivers are the Kumaon Himalayas located?
The Kumaon Himalayas extend for about 320 km across Uttarakhand between the Satluj River and the Kali River.
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- River Boundaries and Length: In the longitudinal division of the Himalayas, the Kumaon (or Kumaun) Himalayas lie between the Satluj (Sutlej) River and the Kali River, stretching for about 320 km in the state of Uttarakhand.
- Major High-Altitude Peaks: This section stands higher than the Punjab Himalayas and contains famous peaks including Nanda Devi (7,816 m / 7,817 m), Kamet, Trishul, Badrinath, Kedarnath, Mana, and Shivling.
- Glaciers and River Headwaters: The Kumaon division holds important glaciers like the Gangotri, Yamunotri, and Pindari glaciers, which are the main sources of the Ganga and Yamuna rivers.
- Valleys, Doons, and Pilgrimage Sites: Its Lesser Himalayan belt includes the Mussoorie and Nag Tibba ranges, flat valleys like Dehra Dun, the famous 'Valley of Flowers,' and holy pilgrimage towns like Badrinath, Kedarnath, Gangotri, Yamunotri, and Hemkund Sahib.
Nepal Himalayas
Which is the longest longitudinal division of the Himalayas at 800 km?
Stretching roughly 800 km between the Kali and Teesta rivers, the Nepal Himalayas form the longest and highest longitudinal section.
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- Longest Regional Section: The Nepal Himalayas (also called the Central Himalayas) lie between the Kali River and the Teesta (Tista) River, stretching for about 800 km to form the longest longitudinal division.
- Concentration of World's Highest Peaks: This central division is the highest section of the Himalayas, containing the world's tallest peaks including Mount Everest (8,848.86 m, also called Sagarmatha), Kanchenjunga, Lhotse, Makalu, and Dhaulagiri.
- Lacustrine Valleys and Drainage: Major rivers like the Ghaghara, Gandak, and Kosi drain this region, which also features famous wide valleys like Kathmandu and Pokhara that were once ancient lakes.
- Sikkim-Darjeeling Transition: At its eastern side near the Teesta River, the range includes the Sikkim-Darjeeling Himalayas, known for duar foothill slopes used for growing tea gardens and cinchona.
Assam Himalayas
Which division of the Himalayas lies between the Teesta and Dihang rivers?
The Assam (Eastern) Himalayas span 720 km to 750 km between the Teesta River in the west and the Dihang River in the east.
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- Easternmost Longitudinal Division: The Assam Himalayas (also called the Eastern Himalayas) form the easternmost regional division, spanning 720 km to 750 km between the Teesta River and the Dihang (Brahmaputra) River.
- Political and Geographical Coverage: This section covers the Indian states of Sikkim, the hill districts of West Bengal (Darjeeling and Kalimpong), and Arunachal Pradesh, as well as the country of Bhutan.
- Peaks and Strategic Passes: Important peaks here include Namcha Barwa (7,782 m), Kula Kangri (7,554 m), Chomo Lhari (7,327 m), and Kangto (7,090 m), while key passes across the Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh sector include Nathu La, Jelep La, Bum La, Sela (Tse La), Bomdi La, and Yongyap La (with Diphu Pass further east at the Myanmar tri-junction).
- Climate and Tribal Hill Ranges: The Assam Himalayas have lower overall heights than the Nepal section, steep southern slopes, and heavy monsoon rainfall above 200 cm, with foothill ranges named after local tribes: the Aka, Dafla, Miri, Abor, and Mishmi hills.
Trans-Himalayan Ranges
Which mountain ranges belong to the Trans-Himalayas north of the Great Himalayas?
The Trans-Himalayan zone north of the Himadri comprises the Karakoram, Ladakh, Zaskar, and Kailash mountain ranges.
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- Position and Geological Age: The Trans-Himalayan ranges lie just north of the Greater Himalayan (Himadri) range across Ladakh and Tibet. This mountain belt is older than the Greater Himalayas and has an average height of about 3,000 to 5,000 meters.
- Constituent Mountain Ranges: Branching out from the Pamir Knot, the Trans-Himalayas include four main ranges: the Karakoram Range, the Ladakh Range, the Zaskar Range, and the Kailash Range in Tibet.
- Highest Peak and Glaciers: The Karakoram Range holds Mount Godwin-Austen or K2 (8,611 m), the second-highest peak in the world, along with high passes like Aghil Pass and Khardung La near the Siachen Glacier.
- Rain Shadow Cold Desert: Because the tall Greater Himalayas block monsoon rain clouds from the south, the Trans-Himalayas lie in a dry rain-shadow zone, forming the cold desert of Leh and Ladakh where the Indus flows between the Ladakh and Zaskar ranges.
Purvanchal Hills
What are the eastern hills called where the Himalayas turn south after the Dihang gorge?
South of the Dihang gorge, the Himalayas bend sharply southward along the India-Myanmar border to form the Purvanchal or Eastern Hills.
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- Southward Deflection Beyond Dihang: Beyond the Dihang (Brahmaputra) gorge in the east, the Himalayas bend sharply south along the India-Myanmar border; these lower hill ranges are called the Purvanchal or Eastern Hills.
- North-to-South Alignment of Hills: Running generally from north to south, the Purvanchal includes the Patkai Bum in Arunachal Pradesh, the Naga Hills in Nagaland, the Manipur Hills in Manipur, and the Mizo (Lushai) Hills in Mizoram, along with the Tripura and Barail ranges.
- Rock Composition: Linked geologically to the Arakan Yoma mountains, the Purvanchal hills are made of loose, broken sedimentary rocks such as sandstone, shale, mudstone, and quartzite.
- Key Ecological Features and Peaks: The Manipur Hills contain Loktak Lake and Keibul Lamjao, the world's only floating national park, while Mount Saramati (3,826 m) in the Naga Hills is the highest peak of the Purvanchal and Blue Mountain or Phawngpui (2,157 m) is the highest peak of the Mizo Hills.
East-West Contrasts
How do height variations and rainfall compare between the eastern and western Himalayas?
The eastern half of the Himalayas experiences both steeper altitudinal variations and significantly higher monsoon rainfall than the western half.
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- Greater Altitudinal Variation in the East: In the physiographic division of the Himalayas, height (altitudinal) variations are greater in the eastern half than in the western half. The eastern mountains rise sharply over a narrow 150 km belt, while the western mountains rise more gradually across a 400 km belt.
- Eastward Increase in Rainfall: Across the horizontal west-to-east division, rainfall rises strongly toward the east because the Eastern Himalayas receive full Southwest Monsoon winds, getting over 200 cm of rain compared to the drier west.
- Dominance of Fluvial Erosion: Because of heavy monsoon rain and steep southern slopes, fast rivers cut deep valleys and gorges across the eastern Himalayan landscape.
- Vegetation and Snowline Contrasts: High rainfall in the eastern half supports thick evergreen forests and a higher snowline, whereas the cooler and drier western half has more snow cover at lower heights and wider valleys.
3. Module 3: Three Parallel Ranges and North-to-South Divisions
Parallel Range Sequence
What is the correct order of the three parallel ranges of the Himalayas from north to south?
From north to south, the three parallel ranges of the main Himalayas are arranged as the Himadri, the Himachal, and the Shiwaliks.
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- Three Parallel Longitudinal Belts: From north to south, the main Himalayan mountain system is divided into three parallel mountain ranges separated by valleys.
- Northernmost Range (Himadri): The first and northernmost range is the Great or Inner Himalayas, also called the Himadri, which is the tallest and most continuous range.
- Middle Range (Himachal): Immediately south of the Himadri lies the second parallel range, known as the Himachal, Lesser Himalayas, or Middle Himalayas.
- Southernmost Range (Shiwaliks): The third and southernmost range bordering the Northern Plains is the Outer Himalayas or Shiwaliks, which forms the lowest foothill chain.
Greater Himalayas
Which is the northernmost and highest of the three parallel ranges of the Himalayas?
The Greater Himalayas (Himadri) form the northernmost, highest, and most continuous range of the main Himalayan system.
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- Northernmost Main Range: The Greater Himalayas, also known as the Inner Himalayas or Himadri, form the northernmost and highest range of the three parallel Himalayan divisions.
- Unbroken Continuity: Unlike the lower ranges that are broken by rivers into smaller hill chains, the Greater Himalaya is the only Himalayan range that keeps an unbroken continuous wall from west to east.
- Perennial Snow Cover: Because its peaks stand above the snowline, this range is permanently covered in snow and ice, giving it the name Himadri and feeding major rivers like the Ganga and Yamuna.
- World's Tallest Peaks: The highest peaks in the world—including Mount Everest (8,848.86 m), Kanchenjunga, Nanga Parbat, and Nanda Devi—are all located in this range.
Himadri Elevation
What is the average height of the Greater Himalayas (Himadri)?
The Greater Himalayas (Himadri) maintain an average elevation of approximately 6,000 to 6,100 meters above mean sea level.
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- Average Elevation Metric: The Greater Himalayas (Himadri) have an average height of about 6,000 to 6,100 meters above mean sea level, while several peaks rise above 8,000 meters.
- Crystalline Granite Core: The inner core of the Greater Himalayas is made of solid crystalline rocks—specifically granite and gneisses—surrounded by metamorphic and sedimentary rocks.
- Topographical Characteristics: This range features high relief, deep river gorges, steep slopes on its southern side, and gentler slopes on its northern side.
- High-Altitude Mountain Passes: Important mountain passes in the Greater Himalayas include Zoji La, Bara Lacha La, Shipki La, Lipulekh, Mana, Niti, Nathu La, and Jelep La.
Lesser Himalayas
Which parallel range of the Himalayas is also called the Himachal or Middle Himalayas?
The Lesser Himalayas form the middle parallel range south of the Himadri and are also known as the Himachal or Middle Himalayas.
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- Alternative Nomenclature: The middle belt of the three parallel ranges lies south of the Himadri and is called the Lesser Himalayas, the Middle Himalayas, or the Himachal.
- Elevation Profile: The average height of the Lesser Himalayas ranges from 1,800 meters to 4,500 meters (cited as 3,700 m to 4,500 m in NCERT) above mean sea level.
- Metamorphic and Sedimentary Lithology: Because of strong compression during mountain building, the Lesser Himalayas are made of metamorphic rocks along with weak shale, limestone, and conglomerates.
- Forest and Slope Contrasts: In this range, the southern slopes facing the plains are steep, rugged, and comparatively bare due to heavy erosion, whereas the gentler northern slopes support dense forests and alpine meadows (margs and bugyals).
Pir Panjal Range
Which is the longest and most important range in the Lesser Himalayas?
The Pir Panjal Range across Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh is the longest and most prominent range in the Lesser Himalayas.
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- Dominant Lesser Himalayan Range: The Lesser Himalayas are divided into several local ranges, among which the Pir Panjal Range across Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh is the longest and most important.
- Other Regional Ranges: Along with the Pir Panjal, the Lesser Himalayas include the Dhauladhar Range in Himachal Pradesh, and the Mussoorie and Nag Tibba ranges in Uttarakhand.
- Enclosure of Major Valleys: The Pir Panjal and Dhauladhar ranges enclose famous valleys in the western Himalayas, including the Kashmir Valley, the Kullu Valley, and the Kangra Valley.
- Dense Coniferous Vegetation: These ranges are covered with dense forests and feature grassy alpine meadows on their upper slopes called margs in Kashmir.
Himalayan Hill Stations
In which Himalayan range are famous hill stations like Shimla, Almora, and Darjeeling located?
Major hill stations such as Shimla, Almora, Mussoorie, Nainital, and Darjeeling are situated in the moderate elevations of the Lesser Himalayas (Himachal).
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- Hub of Himalayan Hill Towns: The Lesser Himalayas (Himachal) are famous for their pleasant climate and scenic ridges, which hold popular hill towns like Shimla, Mussoorie, Nainital, Almora, Darjeeling, Kalimpong, and Gangtok.
- Favorable Moderate Altitude: Standing at a middle height of 1,800 m to 4,500 m, these mountains offer cool summers without the permanent freezing snow of the 6,100 m Himadri.
- Lakes and Tectonic Valleys: This belt features beautiful freshwater lakes around Nainital as well as fertile tectonic valleys like Kullu, Manali, and Kangra.
- Economic Role of Mountain Tourism: Centered in these hill stations and pilgrimage sites, tourism is the largest service industry in the mountain states, contributing more than 10% to the state GDP of Uttarakhand and West Bengal.
Outer Himalayas
Which is the southernmost and lowest of the three parallel ranges of the Himalayas?
The Shiwaliks (Outer Himalayas) form the southernmost and lowest foothill range of the Himalayas, with elevations between 600 m and 1,500 m (900 m to 1,100 m in NCERT).
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- Southernmost Foothill Belt: The Shiwaliks (or Siwaliks), also called the Outer Himalayas or Sub-Himalayan Foothills, form the southernmost range of the three parallel Himalayan divisions.
- Lowest Elevation Range: The average height of the Shiwalik range varies between 600 meters and 1,500 meters (cited as 900 m to 1,100 m in NCERT) above mean sea level, making it the lowest belt of the Himalayas.
- Unconsolidated Alluvial Composition: Unlike the hard granite core of the Himadri, the Shiwaliks are built of soft, unconsolidated river deposits eroded from the higher ranges to the north.
- Regional Names Across the Arc: These foothills are called the Jammu Hills in Jammu, while in Arunachal Pradesh they are known as the Dafla, Miri, Abor, and Mishmi hills.
Dun Valleys
What are the flat-bottomed valleys between the Lesser Himalayas and the Shiwaliks called?
Longitudinal flat-bottomed valleys filled with alluvial gravel between the Lesser Himalayas and the Shiwaliks are called Duns or Doons.
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- Location of Dun Valleys: Between the Lesser Himalayas in the north and the Outer Himalayas (Shiwaliks) in the south lie broad valleys with flat bottoms known as Duns or Doons.
- Process of Formation: These longitudinal valleys are covered with thick gravel and soil deposits washed down from the higher Himalayan ranges by mountain rivers.
- Prominent Examples: The most famous and largest of these flat valleys is Dehra Dun in Uttarakhand, along with other valleys like Patli Dun.
- Agricultural and Urban Importance: Because of their flat land, rich soil, and water supply, the Dun valleys support major cities, farming, and research centers.
Duar Topography
What feature replaces the Shiwalik foothills in the Eastern Himalayas for growing tea?
In the Eastern Himalayas, the Shiwalik foothills are replaced by well-drained alluvial Duar floodplains that are ideal for tea plantations.
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- Absence of Continuous Shiwaliks: In the Eastern Himalayas across the Darjeeling, Sikkim, and Bhutan region, the Shiwalik range gives way to a special foothill landscape called duar topography.
- Nature of the Duars: The Duars are sloping alluvial floodplains lying directly at the base of the steep Himalayan foothills where heavy monsoon rivers enter the plains.
- Ideal Conditions for Tea Gardens: Because the Duar slopes have well-drained soils and receive heavy monsoon rainfall, they have been widely used for developing tea gardens and growing cinchona.
- Contrast with Western Duns: While the western Himalayas have enclosed flat Dun valleys behind the Shiwalik hills, the eastern Himalayas feature open Duar slopes used for plantation farming.
North-South Range Order
What is the correct north-to-south order of these five mountain ranges in northern India?
Moving from north to south across northwestern India, the ranges are ordered sequentially as Karakoram, Ladakh, Zaskar, Pir Panjal, and Shiwaliks.
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- Northernmost Karakoram Range: Moving from north to south across the northwestern mountains, the northernmost range is the Trans-Himalayan Karakoram Range, home to K2 (8,611 m).
- Ladakh and Zaskar Ranges: South of the Karakoram lies the Ladakh Range, followed to its south by the Zaskar Range, with the Indus River flowing between the Ladakh and Zaskar ranges.
- Pir Panjal (Lesser Himalaya): South of the Zaskar Range rises the Pir Panjal Range (and further south, the Dhauladhar Range), which forms the Lesser Himalayas in this region.
- Southernmost Shiwaliks: Finally, at the southern edge bordering the northern plains lies the Shiwalik range (Outer Himalayas), completing the north-to-south mountain sequence.
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