Polity Set 23 | MROY Class

Polity Set 23 – Questions & Answers

Who among the following was the Chairman of the Order of Business Committee, a minor committee of the Constituent Assembly? – Dr. K.M. Munshi
Which minor committee of the Constituent Assembly was chaired by S. Varadachari (who was not an Assembly Member)? – Ad-hoc Committee on the Supreme Court
Part XIV-A of the Constitution, dealing with Tribunals, was added by which Constitutional Amendment Act? – 42nd Amendment Act (1976)
Which Part of the Constitution deals with the Municipalities? – Part IX-A
Article 31B and the Ninth Schedule were added to the Constitution by which Amendment Act to protect certain laws from judicial scrutiny? – 1st Amendment Act (1951)
According to Article 31C, laws seeking to implement the socialistic directive principles specified in Article 39(b) or (c) shall NOT be void on the ground of contravention of which fundamental rights? – Articles 14 and 19
In which case did the Supreme Court overrule its earlier verdict in the Golaknath case regarding the amendability of Fundamental Rights? – Kesavananda Bharati case (1973)
According to the Seventh Schedule, what was the original number of subjects in the State List (List II) before amendments? – 66
What is the current number of subjects in the Concurrent List (List III) of the Seventh Schedule? – 52
By which Constitutional Amendment Act was the language ‘Oriya’ renamed to ‘Odia’ in the Eighth Schedule? – 96th Amendment Act of 2011
Which Schedule specifies the powers, authority, and responsibilities of Municipalities? – Twelfth Schedule
Part XI of the Constitution deals with which of the following subjects? – Relations between the Union and the States
Elections are dealt with in which Part of the Constitution? – Part XV
Part XVII of the Constitution deals with which subject? – Official Language
Which Article of the Constitution deals with the ‘Abolition of untouchability’? – Article 17
Which Article guarantees the ‘Protection of life and personal liberty’? – Article 21
‘Formation of new states and alteration of areas, boundaries or names of existing states’ is dealt with under which Article? – Article 3
Which Article ensures ‘Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment’? – Article 16
‘To promote equal justice and to provide free legal aid to the poor’ is a Directive Principle specified under which Article? – Article 39 A
The Directive Principle ‘To protect and improve the environment and to safeguard forests and wild life’ is found under which Article? – Article 48 A
Which Amendment Act of 1971 inserted Article 31C into the Constitution? – 25th Amendment Act
The expression ‘Procedure established by Law’ under Article 21 was borrowed from which country’s constitution? – Japan
The principle of ‘freedom of trade, commerce and inter-course’ was borrowed from the constitution of: – Australia
The term ‘republic’ in the Preamble indicates that India has an elected head (the President). How long is the fixed period for this office? – Five years
Which Constitutional Amendment Act added the words ‘Socialist, Secular and Integrity’ to the Preamble? – 42nd Amendment Act of 1976
Article 25 guarantees freedom of conscience and the right to freely profess, practice, and propagate religion. Are these rights available to non-citizens (foreigners)? – Yes
Who among the following described the Preamble as the ‘key-note’ to the Constitution? – Sir Ernest Barker
Who was the Chairman of the Advisory Committee on Fundamental Rights, Minorities and Tribal and Excluded Areas in the Constituent Assembly? – Sardar Patel
How many members did the Drafting Committee of the Constituent Assembly consist of? – Seven
Which committee made general suggestions about autonomous areas, powers of provincial governments, and drafted a resolution closely resembling the Objectives Resolution? – Experts Committee of the Congress

MROY Class

Polity Set 23

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📌 Constituent Assembly • Committees

Q.1) Who among the following was the Chairman of the Order of Business Committee, a minor committee of the Constituent Assembly?

Ans > Dr. K.M. Munshi

Role in the Constituent Assembly: To handle the monumental task of drafting the Constitution efficiently, the Constituent Assembly appointed several committees. While there were 8 major committees, there were numerous minor committees tasked with specific logistical or specialized duties.
The Order of Business Committee: Dr. K.M. Munshi was officially appointed to chair the Order of Business Committee. This committee played a highly crucial role in regulating the timetable, setting the daily agenda, and streamlining the complex, often heated discussions on the Assembly floor to ensure steady progress.
Profile of Dr. K.M. Munshi: Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi was an eminent lawyer, veteran independence activist, and a prolific author. Beyond this minor committee, he was a vital, highly influential member of the core Drafting Committee chaired by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar. He famously advocated for strong fundamental rights and the inclusion of Hindi as the national language.
Legacy and Contributions: Dr. Munshi was also deeply committed to education and Indian culture, famously founding the Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan in 1938. His legal acumen heavily influenced the structural and procedural efficiency of the constitutional debates.

📌 Constituent Assembly • Committees

Q.2) Which minor committee of the Constituent Assembly was chaired by S. Varadachari (who was not an Assembly Member)?

Ans > Ad-hoc Committee on the Supreme Court

Unique Leadership Appointment: In a highly unusual but strategic move, S. Varadachari was appointed as the Chairman of the Ad-hoc Committee on the Supreme Court, despite the fact that he was never formally elected or nominated as a member of the Constituent Assembly itself.
Exceptional Legal Acumen: The Assembly leaders actively sought out Varadachari precisely because of his towering legal reputation. He had previously served with great distinction as a judge of the Federal Court of India (the predecessor to the modern Supreme Court). His sheer expertise made him the most qualified individual to design the apex judicial institution.
Committee’s Mandate and Impact: The primary mandate of this Ad-hoc Committee was to strictly define the overarching jurisdiction, powers, and structural hierarchy of the proposed Supreme Court of India. They debated highly complex issues like original jurisdiction, appellate powers, and the mechanisms for appointing independent judges without political interference.
Shaping the Constitution: The comprehensive recommendations drafted by Varadachari’s committee were heavily incorporated by the Drafting Committee. These recommendations ultimately formed the bedrock of Part V, Chapter IV of the Indian Constitution, completely shaping the modern independent Indian judiciary.

📌 Parts of Constitution • Amendments

Q.3) Part XIV-A of the Constitution, dealing with Tribunals, was added by which Constitutional Amendment Act?

Ans > 42nd Amendment Act (1976)

The ‘Mini-Constitution’ Context: The 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act of 1976 was enacted during the controversial period of the National Emergency under Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. Because of the sheer volume and radical nature of the changes it introduced, it is widely referred to as the ‘Mini-Constitution’.
Insertion of Part XIV-A: Based directly on the recommendations of the Swaran Singh Committee, this amendment inserted a completely new part into the Constitution—Part XIV-A, which deals exclusively with the establishment and functioning of ‘Tribunals’.
Articles 323A and 323B: This part consists of just two vital articles. Article 323A empowers the Parliament to establish Administrative Tribunals specifically to resolve disputes regarding the recruitment and conditions of service of public servants. Article 323B allows both Parliament and State Legislatures to set up tribunals for other matters like taxation, foreign exchange, labor, and land reforms.
Objective Behind Tribunals: The primary intent behind creating these quasi-judicial bodies was to drastically reduce the massive, mounting backlog of pending cases in the High Courts and to provide specialized, speedy, and highly cost-effective justice by involving subject-matter experts alongside judicial members.

📌 Parts of Constitution • Local Government

Q.4) Which Part of the Constitution deals with the Municipalities?

Ans > Part IX-A

Constitutional Status for Urban Bodies: Part IX-A of the Indian Constitution is explicitly dedicated to “The Municipalities.” It was inserted to grant formal, binding constitutional status and robust protection to urban local self-governments across the country, ensuring they function as effective units of democratic decentralization.
The 74th Amendment Act: This vital part was formally added by the 74th Constitutional Amendment Act, which was passed in 1992 and officially came into force on June 1, 1993. It contains comprehensive provisions spanning from Article 243P to Article 243ZG.
Three-Tier Urban Structure: Part IX-A heavily mandates the creation of three distinct types of municipalities based on the area’s demographics: a Nagar Panchayat for areas in transition from rural to urban, a Municipal Council for smaller urban areas, and a Municipal Corporation for large metropolitan urban areas.
Mandatory Democratic Provisions: The amendment strictly enforced regular elections every five years, established an independent State Election Commission to conduct these polls, mandated the reservation of seats for SCs, STs, and women (at least one-third), and required the formation of a State Finance Commission to review municipal financial health.

📌 Amendments • Schedules

Q.5) Article 31B and the Ninth Schedule were added to the Constitution by which Amendment Act to protect certain laws from judicial scrutiny?

Ans > 1st Amendment Act (1951)

Context of Agrarian Reforms: Immediately after independence, Jawaharlal Nehru’s government initiated massive agrarian reforms to abolish the exploitative Zamindari system. However, these land reform laws were constantly struck down by High Courts (like the Kameshwar Singh case in Bihar) for violating the fundamental right to property (Article 31).
The First Amendment Solution: To overcome these severe legal hurdles and secure the socialist agrarian agenda, the provisional Parliament passed the very First Constitutional Amendment Act in 1951. This amendment specifically introduced Article 31B and the infamous Ninth Schedule.
The Protective Umbrella: Article 31B essentially functions as a protective umbrella. It dictates that any act, regulation, or law that is placed inside the Ninth Schedule cannot be challenged or declared void by any court on the grounds that it violates the Fundamental Rights enshrined in Part III (especially equality, freedom, and property rights).
Evolution and the I.R. Coelho Case: Historically, the Ninth Schedule provided total immunity from judicial review. However, in the landmark I.R. Coelho case (2007), the Supreme Court definitively ruled that any laws placed in the Ninth Schedule *after* April 24, 1973 (the date of the Kesavananda Bharati verdict) are indeed open to judicial scrutiny if they violate the “Basic Structure” of the Constitution.

📌 Fundamental Rights • DPSP

Q.6) According to Article 31C, laws seeking to implement the socialistic directive principles specified in Article 39(b) or (c) shall NOT be void on the ground of contravention of which fundamental rights?

Ans > Articles 14 and 19

The Genesis of Article 31C: Article 31C was strategically inserted into the Constitution by the 25th Amendment Act of 1971 during Indira Gandhi’s tenure. It was enacted to aggressively pursue a socialist economic agenda by bypassing legal roadblocks created by the enforcement of individual fundamental rights.
Prioritizing Socialist Directives: The article explicitly protects laws made by the State that seek to implement the specific Directive Principles outlined in Article 39(b) (ensuring the equitable distribution of community material resources for the common good) and Article 39(c) (preventing the concentration of wealth and means of production).
Immunity from Equality and Freedom: Article 31C strictly declares that any law enacted to fulfill these two socialist directives cannot be declared unconstitutional or void even if it directly violates the fundamental rights guaranteed by Article 14 (Right to Equality) and Article 19 (Six Freedoms, including speech, assembly, and profession).
The Minerva Mills Restriction: Later, the 42nd Amendment (1976) attempted to drastically expand this protection to cover *all* Directive Principles against Fundamental Rights. However, in the landmark Minerva Mills case (1980), the Supreme Court struck down this massive extension, ruling that the delicate balance between Fundamental Rights and DPSPs is a core part of the Basic Structure. Thus, Article 31C’s protection remains limited strictly to Articles 39(b) and (c).

📌 Landmark Judgments • Basic Structure

Q.7) In which case did the Supreme Court overrule its earlier verdict in the Golaknath case regarding the amendability of Fundamental Rights?

Ans > Kesavananda Bharati case (1973)

The Golaknath Precedent (1967): In the Golaknath vs. State of Punjab case, the Supreme Court had severely restricted parliamentary power, ruling that Parliament absolutely cannot amend Part III of the Constitution to take away or abridge any Fundamental Rights. This created a massive constitutional deadlock.
The Historic 1973 Reversal: The Kesavananda Bharati vs. State of Kerala (1973) case is arguably the most important judgment in Indian constitutional history. Decided by the largest ever 13-judge bench, the Court overruled the Golaknath verdict by a razor-thin 7-6 majority, restoring Parliament’s power to amend *any* part of the Constitution, including Fundamental Rights, under Article 368.
Birth of the Basic Structure Doctrine: While granting this massive amending power, the Supreme Court heavily conditioned it by innovating the “Basic Structure Doctrine.” The Court ruled that Parliament’s amending power is not absolute; it cannot be used to destroy, alter, or abrogate the fundamental, underlying framework or “basic structure” of the Constitution.
Core Elements of the Basic Structure: Although the Court didn’t provide an exhaustive list, subsequent judgments established that features like secularism, federalism, parliamentary democracy, judicial review, the rule of law, and the separation of powers constitute this inviolable basic structure, acting as a permanent check against legislative tyranny.

📌 Schedules • Federal Structure

Q.8) According to the Seventh Schedule, what was the original number of subjects in the State List (List II) before amendments?

Ans > 66

Division of Powers (Article 246): The Seventh Schedule of the Constitution meticulously divides legislative subjects between the Union and the States through three lists: the Union List, the State List, and the Concurrent List. This division is the absolute bedrock of Indian federalism.
The Original State List: At the time of the adoption of the Constitution, the State List (List II) originally consisted of exactly 66 subjects. The State Legislatures have exclusive, sovereign power to enact laws regarding these specific subjects under normal circumstances.
Key Subjects of Local Importance: The subjects allocated to the State List are generally matters of regional and local importance where uniform national laws are not necessary. Critical examples include public order, state police, public health and sanitation, agriculture, local government, and state-level taxation.
The 42nd Amendment Shift: The original count of 66 did not remain static. The 42nd Amendment Act of 1976 severely curtailed state autonomy by transferring five vital subjects—Education, Forests, Weights and Measures, Protection of Wild Animals, and Administration of Justice—from the State List to the Concurrent List. Due to this and other repeals, the active functional count is now 59 (though the numbering still ends at 66).

📌 Schedules • Federal Structure

Q.9) What is the current number of subjects in the Concurrent List (List III) of the Seventh Schedule?

Ans > 52

Concept and Origin: The concept of a Concurrent List (List III) was heavily borrowed from the Australian Constitution. It contains subjects where both the Union Parliament and the State Legislatures possess concurrent (joint) jurisdiction to enact laws, promoting cooperative federalism.
Original vs. Current Count: When the Constitution was enacted in 1950, the Concurrent List originally contained 47 subjects. However, following structural amendments over the decades, the current official number of subjects in this list has increased to 52.
The Rule of Repugnancy (Article 254): While both tiers of government can legislate on these 52 items, Article 254 dictates that if there is a conflict or inconsistency between a central law and a state law on a concurrent subject, the central law will absolutely prevail over the state law.
Major Subjects Included: The list handles matters where uniformity across the nation is desirable but not strictly essential. Crucial subjects include criminal law and procedure, marriage and divorce, bankruptcy and insolvency, trade unions, electricity, economic and social planning, and, notably, education and forests (which were shifted here by the 42nd Amendment in 1976).

📌 Schedules • Official Languages

Q.10) By which Constitutional Amendment Act was the language ‘Oriya’ renamed to ‘Odia’ in the Eighth Schedule?

Ans > 96th Amendment Act of 2011

Linguistic Accuracy: The 96th Constitutional Amendment Act, formally enacted in 2011, was passed specifically to substitute the word ‘Oriya’ with the phonetically and culturally accurate term ‘Odia’ in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution.
Parallel State Name Change: This constitutional language update was carried out simultaneously with the passage of the Orissa (Alteration of Name) Act, 2011 by the Parliament. That specific act formally altered the English spelling of the state’s name from ‘Orissa’ to ‘Odisha’ to better reflect local pronunciation.
Significance of the Eighth Schedule: The Eighth Schedule lists the officially recognized languages of the Republic of India. Originally, the Constitution recognized only 14 languages. Over time, through various amendments, the schedule has expanded significantly to include 22 languages today, reflecting India’s massive linguistic diversity.
History of Language Amendments: Before the 96th Amendment, the Eighth Schedule was amended three times to add new languages: the 21st Amendment (1967) added Sindhi; the 71st Amendment (1992) added Konkani, Manipuri, and Nepali; and the 92nd Amendment (2003) added Bodo, Dogri, Maithili, and Santhali.

📌 Schedules • Local Government

Q.11) Which Schedule specifies the powers, authority, and responsibilities of Municipalities?

Ans > Twelfth Schedule

Constitutional Urban Empowerment: The Twelfth Schedule of the Indian Constitution is the foundational document that explicitly details the administrative powers, functional authority, and core responsibilities entrusted to Municipalities and urban local bodies.
Origin and Insertion: This vital schedule was entirely absent from the original 1950 Constitution. It was formally inserted by the landmark 74th Constitutional Amendment Act of 1992, which aimed to revitalize democratic decentralization in India’s rapidly expanding urban centers.
The 18 Functional Items: The Twelfth Schedule clearly enumerates a comprehensive list of 18 specific functional items. State legislatures are constitutionally expected to devolve powers to municipalities over these exact subjects to ensure effective self-governance and local planning.
Key Responsibilities: The subjects covered are vast and highly impactful for urban living. They include urban town planning, regulation of land use, construction of buildings, domestic and industrial water supply, public health and solid waste management, fire services, urban forestry, slum improvement, and the provision of urban amenities like parks and street lighting.

📌 Parts of Constitution • Federalism

Q.12) Part XI of the Constitution deals with which of the following subjects?

Ans > Relations between the Union and the States

The Federal Framework: Part XI of the Indian Constitution, spanning from Article 245 to Article 263, constitutes the very heart of India’s federal structure. It meticulously outlines the complex legal and administrative relationships between the central Union Government and the constituent States.
Two Distinct Chapters: This part is logically divided into two distinct chapters. Chapter I (Articles 245-255) deals heavily with Legislative Relations, explicitly defining the territorial extent of laws and distributing legislative subjects (via the Seventh Schedule). Chapter II (Articles 256-263) handles Administrative Relations, dictating how state and central executives must interact and cooperate.
Union Supremacy and Flexibility: While it establishes a federal division of power, Part XI heavily slants toward a strong central government. It grants Parliament residual powers (Article 248) and the extraordinary ability to legislate on strictly State List subjects during national emergencies, under President’s Rule, or if the Rajya Sabha passes a resolution declaring it necessary in the national interest (Article 249).
Cooperative Mechanisms: To prevent friction and promote harmony, Chapter II includes vital mechanisms for cooperative federalism, such as the establishment of an Inter-State Council (Article 263) by the President to investigate and advise upon disputes between the states or between the center and the states.

📌 Parts of Constitution • Elections

Q.13) Elections are dealt with in which Part of the Constitution?

Ans > Part XV

The Electoral Framework: Part XV of the Constitution, strictly encompassing Articles 324 to 329, contains the comprehensive, bedrock provisions relating to the conduct of free and fair elections in the world’s largest democracy.
The Election Commission of India (ECI): The cornerstone of this part is Article 324, which establishes the Election Commission of India as an independent, permanent constitutional body. It vests the ECI with the absolute power of superintendence, direction, and control over the entire process of elections to Parliament, State Legislatures, and the offices of the President and Vice-President.
Secular Electoral Rolls: Article 325 embodies India’s secular democratic ethos by explicitly mandating that there shall be one general electoral roll for every territorial constituency. It strictly prohibits any person from being excluded from, or claiming inclusion in, the electoral roll exclusively on the grounds of religion, race, caste, or sex.
Universal Adult Suffrage (Article 326): This highly revolutionary article mandates that elections to the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies must be conducted purely on the basis of adult suffrage. Every citizen who is not otherwise disqualified (due to crime, non-residence, or unsound mind) has the fundamental right to vote. The voting age was notably reduced from 21 to 18 years by the 61st Amendment Act of 1988.

📌 Parts of Constitution • Language

Q.14) Part XVII of the Constitution deals with which subject?

Ans > Official Language

Managing Linguistic Diversity: Part XVII of the Constitution (spanning Articles 343 to 351) deals extensively with the highly sensitive and complex subject of the “Official Language” of the Republic. It is divided into chapters covering the language of the Union, regional languages, the language of the judiciary, and special linguistic directives.
Language of the Union (Article 343): This crucial article formally declares that the official language of the Union Government shall be Hindi written in the Devanagari script. However, to ease the transition and address concerns of non-Hindi speaking states, it heavily mandated that English would continue to be used for all official purposes for an initial period of 15 years (from 1950 to 1965).
The Continuation of English: The 15-year deadline created massive political unrest, particularly in southern states. Consequently, Parliament enacted the Official Languages Act, 1963, which provided for the indefinite, continued use of English (alongside Hindi) for official Union purposes and parliamentary transactions, preventing a forced language imposition.
Language of the Judiciary (Article 348): Part XVII explicitly mandates that, until Parliament enacts a law stating otherwise, all proceedings in the Supreme Court and in every High Court, as well as the authoritative texts of all Bills, Acts, ordinances, and orders, must strictly be in the English language to ensure legal precision and uniformity across the country.

📌 Fundamental Rights • Equality

Q.15) Which Article of the Constitution deals with the “Abolition of untouchability”?

Ans > Article 17

Eradicating Historical Injustice: Article 17 boldly declares the absolute “Abolition of Untouchability.” It explicitly forbids its practice in any form whatsoever. This was a revolutionary step designed to completely eradicate a deeply rooted, oppressive historical social practice that degraded millions of marginalized citizens based on their caste.
An Absolute Fundamental Right: Uniquely among Fundamental Rights, Article 17 is absolute and uncompromising. It does not carry any “reasonable restrictions” clauses (unlike the freedoms of speech or assembly). Furthermore, it is a right available not just against the State, but significantly against private individuals as well.
Legal Enforcement and Penalties: The article itself states that the enforcement of any disability arising out of untouchability shall be an offence punishable in accordance with the law. To heavily enforce this, Parliament enacted the Untouchability (Offences) Act, 1955, which was later comprehensively amended and renamed as the Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955.
Strict Judicial Interpretation: The Supreme Court has clarified that the term “untouchability” in Article 17 is not used in its literal or grammatical sense (like quarantine for a disease), but strictly refers to the historical social practice associated with the Hindu caste system. Any person convicted of the offence of untouchability is permanently disqualified from contesting elections to Parliament or State Legislatures.

📌 Fundamental Rights • Liberty

Q.16) Which Article guarantees the “Protection of life and personal liberty”?

Ans > Article 21

The Bedrock of Human Rights: Article 21 is widely considered the absolute heart of the Fundamental Rights in the Indian Constitution. It succinctly but powerfully states: “No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law.”
Universal Applicability: Unlike certain rights restricted only to Indian citizens (like Article 19), the protection of life and personal liberty under Article 21 is a universal human right. It is available to every single person residing on Indian soil, whether they are a citizen or a foreign national.
The Maneka Gandhi Paradigm Shift (1978): Originally, Article 21 was interpreted narrowly (A.K. Gopalan case, 1950) to only protect against arbitrary executive action. However, the landmark Maneka Gandhi case (1978) fundamentally changed this. The Supreme Court ruled that the “procedure established by law” must itself be just, fair, and reasonable, effectively preventing arbitrary legislative action as well.
Massive Judicial Expansion: Following the Maneka Gandhi case, the Supreme Court has highly actively expanded the scope of Article 21. It is no longer just about sheer physical survival. It now encompasses the right to live with human dignity, the right to livelihood, the right to a clean environment, the right to speedy justice, and, most recently recognized in the Puttaswamy judgment (2017), the fundamental Right to Privacy.

📌 Union & Its Territory • States

Q.17) “Formation of new states and alteration of areas, boundaries or names of existing states” is dealt with under which Article?

Ans > Article 3

Parliament’s Reorganization Power: Article 3 heavily empowers the Union Parliament to internally reorganize the political map of India. It grants Parliament the exclusive authority to form a completely new state by separation of territory, merge multiple states, or alter the areas, boundaries, and official names of any existing states.
The “Destructible States” Concept: This article famously demonstrates that India is an “indestructible Union of destructible states.” Unlike the USA, where state boundaries cannot be altered without the state’s consent, the Indian Parliament can literally redraw the map of India without requiring the binding consent of the affected states.
The Presidential Recommendation: The constitutional procedure requires two strict prior conditions: A bill contemplating such territorial changes can be introduced in either house of Parliament *only* with the prior recommendation of the President of India.
Consulting the State Legislature: Before giving this recommendation, the President must refer the bill to the specific state legislature(s) affected for expressing their views within a specified time limit. However, the critical point is that the President (and Parliament) is absolutely not bound by the state legislature’s views and can proceed with the reorganization even if the state actively opposes it (as seen during the formation of Telangana).

📌 Fundamental Rights • Equality

Q.18) Which Article ensures “Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment”?

Ans > Article 16

Guarantee of Equal Opportunity: Article 16 is a highly crucial fundamental right that strictly guarantees equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters relating to employment or appointment to any office under the State. It ensures that the government acts as a fair employer.
Prohibition of Discrimination: Article 16(2) explicitly dictates that no citizen shall be discriminated against or declared ineligible for any employment under the State solely on the grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of birth, or residence.
The Residence Exception: While discrimination based on residence is prohibited, Article 16(3) provides a specific exception. It heavily empowers the Parliament (and only the Parliament, not state legislatures) to enact a law prescribing residence within a state or union territory as a strict requirement for certain classes of public employment to ensure local representation.
The Foundation for Reservations: Most importantly, Article 16(4) empowers the State to make special provisions for the reservation of appointments or posts in favor of any “backward class of citizens” which, in the opinion of the State, is not adequately represented in the state services. This specific clause is the constitutional bedrock for the entire system of SC, ST, and OBC reservations in government jobs, later solidified by the Mandal Commission and the Indra Sawhney judgment.

📌 Directive Principles (DPSP)

Q.19) “To promote equal justice and to provide free legal aid to the poor” is a Directive Principle specified under which Article?

Ans > Article 39 A

Ensuring Access to Justice: Article 39 A is a vital Directive Principle of State Policy (DPSP) that mandates the State to actively ensure that the operation of the legal system promotes justice based strictly on equal opportunity. It aims to tear down the financial barriers that prevent citizens from accessing the courts.
Free Legal Aid Mandate: The core directive of this article requires the State to provide free legal aid, through suitable legislation or schemes, to guarantee that opportunities for securing justice are not denied to any citizen by reason of sheer economic poverty or other systemic disabilities.
Added by the 42nd Amendment: This crucial, socialist-leaning principle was not present in the original 1950 Constitution. It was specifically inserted by the sweeping 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act of 1976 during the Emergency, reflecting a growing focus on social justice.
Implementation through NALSA: To translate this constitutional directive into tangible reality, Parliament enacted the Legal Services Authorities Act in 1987. This act established a nationwide network, including the National Legal Services Authority (NALSA) and grassroots Lok Adalats, to actively provide free and competent legal services to the weaker sections of society and resolve disputes amicably.

📌 Directive Principles (DPSP)

Q.20) The Directive Principle “To protect and improve the environment and to safeguard forests and wild life” is found under which Article?

Ans > Article 48 A

Constitutional Green Mandate: Article 48 A represents the Indian Constitution’s formal commitment to environmental jurisprudence. It explicitly directs the State to “endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wild life of the country.”
Context of Insertion: Like free legal aid, this vital environmental directive was not in the original constitutional draft. It was aggressively introduced by the 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act of 1976, heavily influenced by the global awakening following the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm.
Foundation for Environmental Laws: This single article serves as the constitutional bedrock upon which India’s entire modern environmental legal framework is built. It provided the necessary constitutional backing for Parliament to enact stringent laws like the Forest (Conservation) Act of 1980 and the overarching Environment (Protection) Act of 1986.
Complemented by Fundamental Duties: Article 48 A is uniquely paired with Article 51A(g), which is a Fundamental Duty. While 48 A directs the government to protect nature, 51A(g) places a reciprocal constitutional duty on every Indian citizen to protect and improve the natural environment, including forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife, and to have compassion for living creatures.

📌 Amendments • Article 31C

Q.21) Which Amendment Act of 1971 inserted Article 31C into the Constitution?

Ans > 25th Amendment Act

The Political and Judicial Context: The 25th Amendment Act of 1971 was aggressively enacted by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi’s government as a direct political retaliation against the Supreme Court’s ruling in the famous R.C. Cooper case (the Bank Nationalization case), which had struck down government actions on the grounds of inadequate compensation to property owners.
Altering Property Rights Compensation: To remove the judiciary’s ability to stall socialist economic policies, this amendment drastically altered the Right to Property (Article 31). It strategically substituted the word “compensation” (which implied full market value) with the vague word “amount,” expressly stopping courts from questioning whether the money paid for government land acquisition was adequate.
The Insertion of Article 31C: The most highly significant and controversial aspect of the 25th Amendment was the insertion of the brand-new Article 31C. This article was a direct assault on the absolute supremacy of Fundamental Rights.
Supremacy of Socialist DPSPs: Article 31C boldly declared that any law enacted by the State to implement the socialist Directive Principles contained in Article 39(b) (equitable resource distribution) and 39(c) (preventing wealth concentration) could never be struck down by courts for violating the Fundamental Rights of Equality (Article 14), Freedom (Article 19), or Property (Article 31). It marked a massive shift in constitutional philosophy toward a socialist state.

📌 Sources of Constitution

Q.22) The expression “Procedure established by Law” under Article 21 was borrowed from which country’s constitution?

Ans > Japan

The Japanese Source: When drafting the crucial Article 21 concerning the protection of life and personal liberty, the Constituent Assembly framers deliberately rejected the American terminology and instead borrowed the exact expression “Procedure established by Law” heavily from the Japanese Constitution.
Rejection of ‘Due Process’: Originally, the constitutional advisor B.N. Rau had recommended the American phrase “Due Process of Law.” However, following advice from U.S. Supreme Court Justice Felix Frankfurter (who warned that “due process” gave judges too much unpredictable power to strike down laws), the Drafting Committee intentionally chose the narrower Japanese phrasing.
Original Strict Interpretation: In the early years (like the A.K. Gopalan case, 1950), the Supreme Court interpreted this phrase strictly literally. It meant that as long as the legislature had passed a valid law prescribing a procedure to deprive someone of liberty, and the executive followed that exact procedure, the courts could not intervene—even if the law itself was highly unfair or draconian.
The Evolution to Due Process: This strict interpretation was completely overturned in the landmark Maneka Gandhi case (1978). The Supreme Court creatively re-interpreted “Procedure established by Law” to mean that the legislative procedure must inherently be “just, fair, and reasonable.” In doing so, the Indian judiciary effectively read the essence of the American “Due Process” doctrine back into Article 21, massively expanding human rights protections against arbitrary laws.

📌 Sources of Constitution

Q.23) The principle of “freedom of trade, commerce and inter-course” was borrowed from the constitution of:

Ans > Australia

The Australian Inspiration: The constitutional framers heavily studied various federations to ensure economic unity in the newly independent nation. They specifically borrowed the complex concept of “freedom of trade, commerce, and intercourse” within the country directly from Section 92 of the Australian Constitution.
Enshrined in Part XIII: This borrowed principle is comprehensively detailed in Part XIII of the Indian Constitution, spanning Articles 301 to 307. The fundamental declaration in Article 301 is that trade, commerce, and intercourse throughout the territory of India shall be absolutely free.
Purpose of Economic Unity: The primary objective behind this provision was to tear down pre-existing provincial and princely state barriers and ensure that India functions as a single, unified, seamless national market. It prevents states from erecting internal customs barriers, tariffs, or discriminatory taxes that would hinder the free flow of goods and services across state borders.
Subject to Public Interest Restrictions: Unlike a completely unrestricted free market, this freedom is not absolute. Borrowing practical governance lessons, Articles 302 to 304 explicitly empower both the Union Parliament and State Legislatures to impose reasonable restrictions on this freedom strictly in the public interest (such as managing essential commodities during shortages or ensuring states can equally tax imported and locally manufactured goods).

📌 Preamble • Republic

Q.24) The term “republic” in the Preamble indicates that India has an elected head (the President). How long is the fixed period for this office?

Ans > Five years

Meaning of a Republic: In constitutional theory, democratic polities are broadly classified into two categories: monarchies (like the UK, where the head of state inherits the position) and republics (like the USA and India). A “republic” fundamentally signifies that the head of the state is always elected by the people, directly or indirectly, rather than acquiring the position through hereditary lineage.
Political Sovereignty: The inclusion of the term “Republic” in the Preamble highlights two critical democratic principles. First, it asserts that ultimate political sovereignty is vested firmly in the people of India, not in a single monarch. Second, it signifies the total absence of any privileged or aristocratic class, ensuring that all public offices—from the local panchayat to the Presidency—are legally open to every citizen without any discrimination.
The Presidential Tenure: In the Indian Republic, the head of state is the President of India. Unlike an absolute ruler, the President holds office for a strictly defined, fixed tenure of exactly five years from the date on which they enter their office, as mandated by Article 56 of the Constitution.
The Electoral Process: To maintain this republican character, the President is not nominated but is indirectly elected by a specialized Electoral College. This college consists exclusively of the elected members of both Houses of Parliament (MPs) and the elected members of the Legislative Assemblies of the States (MLAs), ensuring that the President represents the democratic will of the entire nation.

📌 Preamble • Amendments

Q.25) Which Constitutional Amendment Act added the words “Socialist, Secular and Integrity” to the Preamble?

Ans > 42nd Amendment Act of 1976

The Sole Preamble Amendment: Despite numerous changes to the Constitution over the decades, the Preamble has been amended only once in the entire history of independent India. This highly significant alteration occurred during the controversial National Emergency via the 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act of 1976.
The Swaran Singh Committee: The massive, sweeping changes introduced by the 42nd Amendment, including the alteration of the Preamble, were largely based on the recommendations of the Swaran Singh Committee, which was appointed by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi to study constitutional reforms.
Adding “Socialist” and “Secular”: Originally, the Preamble described India simply as a “Sovereign Democratic Republic.” The amendment inserted two highly ideological words, altering the description to a “Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic Republic.” The term “Socialist” formally highlighted India’s commitment to democratic socialism (a mixed economy aimed at ending poverty), while “Secular” constitutionally affirmed that the state has no official religion and treats all faiths with equal respect.
Adding “Integrity”: Furthermore, the original phrase “unity of the Nation” was deliberately changed to “unity and integrity of the Nation.” The addition of the word “integrity” was a direct response to regional separatist movements, aiming to heavily emphasize both the psychological unification and the inviolable territorial integrity of the Indian state.

📌 Fundamental Rights • Religion

Q.26) Article 25 guarantees freedom of conscience and the right to freely profess, practice, and propagate religion. Are these rights available to non-citizens (foreigners)?

Ans > Yes

Universal Application of Religious Freedom: The Constitution distinguishes between rights exclusive to citizens and rights available to all persons on Indian soil. Article 25 falls into the latter category. It explicitly guarantees the freedom of conscience and the right to profess, practice, and propagate religion to all persons, ensuring that non-citizens (foreigners) residing in India enjoy the same fundamental religious liberties as Indian citizens.
Four Distinct Components: Article 25 encompasses four distinct rights: 1) Freedom of conscience (the absolute inner freedom to mold one’s relationship with God), 2) Right to profess (the right to openly declare one’s religious beliefs), 3) Right to practice (the right to perform religious rituals, ceremonies, and exhibit beliefs), and 4) Right to propagate (the right to peacefully transmit or disseminate one’s religious tenets to others).
No Right to Forced Conversion: Crucially, the Supreme Court has definitively ruled that the “Right to propagate” under Article 25 strictly covers the right to peacefully spread one’s beliefs, but it absolutely does not include the right to force or deceptively convert another person to one’s own religion. Forced conversions are a violation of the other person’s freedom of conscience.
Subject to State Restrictions: This fundamental right is not absolute. It is explicitly subjected to three specific grounds of restriction: public order, morality, and health. Furthermore, the State retains the power to enact laws regulating or restricting any economic, financial, political, or other secular activities that may be associated with religious practices.

📌 Preamble • Comments

Q.27) Who among the following described the Preamble as the ‘key-note’ to the Constitution?

Ans > Sir Ernest Barker

An International Endorsement: Sir Ernest Barker was a highly distinguished English political scientist and a prominent academic author. He was not directly involved in the drafting of the Indian Constitution, yet he became one of its most ardent international admirers based solely on the philosophical depth of its text.
The ‘Key-note’ Analogy: Upon heavily studying the newly drafted Indian Constitution, Barker was so profoundly moved and inspired by the specific phrasing and political philosophy of the Preamble that he famously described it as the absolute ‘key-note’ to the entire document. By this, he meant that the Preamble perfectly sets the philosophical tone, rhythm, and overarching guiding principles for the complex legal text that follows it.
Reproduction in his Book: To demonstrate his immense respect for the drafting brilliance of the Constituent Assembly, Sir Ernest Barker took the extraordinary step of reproducing the entire text of the Indian Preamble at the very beginning of his popular and influential book, *’Principles of Social and Political Theory’*, published in 1951.
A Synthesis of Ideals: Barker admired the Preamble because he believed it represented the perfect, harmonious synthesis of Western political democratic thought (liberty, equality, fraternity) seamlessly fused with the unique socio-economic aspirations of the newly independent Indian republic (justice—social, economic, and political).

📌 Constituent Assembly • Committees

Q.28) Who was the Chairman of the Advisory Committee on Fundamental Rights, Minorities and Tribal and Excluded Areas in the Constituent Assembly?

Ans > Sardar Patel

The Most Sensitive Committee: The Advisory Committee on Fundamental Rights, Minorities, and Tribal and Excluded Areas was arguably the most complex and politically sensitive committee within the Constituent Assembly. It was heavily tasked with resolving the most explosive issues of the newly partitioned nation: human rights, minority safeguards, and the integration of diverse tribal populations.
Sardar Patel’s Leadership: Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, the first Deputy Prime Minister and the “Iron Man of India,” was unanimously appointed as the Chairman of this massive 54-member committee. His unparalleled pragmatic leadership, commanding authority, and ability to forge consensus among deeply divided religious, linguistic, and ethnic groups were absolutely vital to preventing further balkanization of the country.
Abolishing Separate Electorates: Under Patel’s decisive guidance, the committee achieved monumental historical milestones. It successfully convinced minority leaders to voluntarily abandon the divisive colonial legacy of “separate electorates,” replacing it instead with a unified electorate featuring temporary reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Tribes, fostering true national integration.
Sub-Committees for specialized focus: Because the mandate of the Advisory Committee was so incredibly broad, Patel wisely decentralized the work by creating highly specialized sub-committees. The two most notable were the Fundamental Rights Sub-Committee (chaired by J.B. Kripalani) and the Minorities Sub-Committee (chaired by H.C. Mukherjee), whose detailed reports heavily shaped Part III of the Constitution.

📌 Constituent Assembly • Drafting

Q.29) How many members did the Drafting Committee of the Constituent Assembly consist of?

Ans > Seven

The Core of Constitution-Making: Following the adoption of various reports by the major and minor committees, the Constituent Assembly officially established the Drafting Committee on August 29, 1947. It was arguably the most important committee, tasked with the monumental responsibility of synthesizing all decisions into a cohesive, legally sound draft of the new Constitution.
The Magnificent Seven: The Drafting Committee was an incredibly tight-knit group comprising exactly seven highly distinguished members, chosen strictly for their immense legal expertise and administrative experience. They were entrusted with refining the initial raw draft heavily prepared by the Constitutional Advisor, Sir B.N. Rau.
Leadership of Dr. Ambedkar: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, a brilliant legal scholar, economist, and social reformer, was unanimously elected as the Chairman of the Drafting Committee. His logical, highly structured, and forceful defense of the draft provisions on the Assembly floor earned him the well-deserved title of the “Father of the Indian Constitution” and its chief architect.
The Other Six Legal Luminaries: The other six original members working alongside Dr. Ambedkar were N. Gopalaswamy Ayyangar, Alladi Krishnaswamy Ayyar, Dr. K.M. Munshi, Syed Mohammad Saadullah, B.L. Mitter (who resigned due to ill health and was rapidly replaced by N. Madhava Rau), and D.P. Khaitan (who unfortunately passed away in 1948 and was replaced by T.T. Krishnamachari). They labored meticulously over 141 days of formal sittings to finalize the draft.

📌 Pre-Constituent Assembly

Q.30) Which committee made general suggestions about autonomous areas, powers of provincial governments, and drafted a resolution closely resembling the Objectives Resolution?

Ans > Experts Committee of the Congress

Pre-Assembly Preparation: Recognizing the sheer complexity of drafting a constitution for a nation as diverse as India, the working committee of the Indian National Congress proactively formed the Experts Committee in July 1946. Crucially, this was completely established *before* the Constituent Assembly officially convened for its very first session in December 1946.
Jawaharlal Nehru’s Leadership: The Experts Committee was formally chaired by Jawaharlal Nehru. Its primary mandate was to heavily prepare foundational material, organize the initial working agenda, and draft concrete procedural rules so that the newly elected Constituent Assembly could hit the ground running without wasting time on initial logistical confusion.
Shaping the Ideological Foundation: During its intensive meetings, the committee heavily debated and made crucial general suggestions regarding complex issues like the integration of autonomous tribal areas and defining the specific powers of provincial governments versus the central authority under the impending Cabinet Mission Plan.
Drafting the Precursor to the Objectives Resolution: The most historically significant contribution of the Experts Committee was drafting a comprehensive, ideological declaration outlining the fundamental philosophy of the future republic. This early draft served as the direct precursor and foundation for the historic “Objectives Resolution” that Nehru masterfully moved in the Constituent Assembly on December 13, 1946, which eventually formed the philosophical core of the Preamble.

📌 Quick Summary — Polity Set 23

Assembly Committees: K.M. Munshi chaired the Order of Business; S. Varadachari chaired Ad-hoc Supreme Court; Sardar Patel chaired Advisory on Fundamental Rights.
Drafting Committee: Comprised 7 members under the chairmanship of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.
Part XIV-A (Tribunals): Added by the 42nd Amendment Act (1976).
Part IX-A & 12th Schedule: Deals with Municipalities, added by 74th Amendment.
Article 31B & 9th Schedule: Inserted by the 1st Amendment Act (1951) to protect land reforms.
Article 31C: Added by 25th Amendment (1971), prioritizing Article 39(b/c) over Articles 14 & 19.
Basic Structure: Established in Kesavananda Bharati case (1973), overruling Golaknath.
7th Schedule Lists: State List originally had 66 subjects; Concurrent List currently has 52.
8th Schedule: ‘Oriya’ changed to ‘Odia’ by the 96th Amendment Act of 2011.
Constitutional Parts: Part XI (Center-State Relations), Part XV (Elections), Part XVII (Official Language).
Fundamental Rights: Article 17 (Abolishes untouchability), Article 21 (Life & Liberty), Article 16 (Public employment equality), Article 25 (Religious freedom available to non-citizens).
Article 3: Governs formation of new states and altering boundaries.
DPSP: Article 39 A (Free legal aid), Article 48 A (Protect environment).
Borrowed Features: “Procedure established by law” (Japan), “Freedom of trade and commerce” (Australia).
Preamble: “Republic” means elected head for 5 years. “Socialist, Secular, Integrity” added by 42nd Amendment. Termed ‘key-note’ by Sir Ernest Barker.
Experts Committee: Set up by Congress (July 1946) to prep for the Assembly.

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Polity Set 23

Q.1) Who among the following was the Chairman of the Order of Business Committee, a minor committee of the Constituent Assembly?

Q.2) Which minor committee of the Constituent Assembly was chaired by S. Varadachari (who was not an Assembly Member)?

Q.3) Part XIV-A of the Constitution, dealing with Tribunals, was added by which Constitutional Amendment Act?

Q.4) Which Part of the Constitution deals with the Municipalities?

Q.5) Article 31B and the Ninth Schedule were added to the Constitution by which Amendment Act to protect certain laws from judicial scrutiny?

Q.6) According to Article 31C, laws seeking to implement the socialistic directive principles specified in Article 39(b) or (c) shall NOT be void on the ground of contravention of which fundamental rights?

Q.7) In which case did the Supreme Court overrule its earlier verdict in the Golaknath case regarding the amendability of Fundamental Rights?

Q.8) According to the Seventh Schedule, what was the original number of subjects in the State List (List II) before amendments?

Q.9) What is the current number of subjects in the Concurrent List (List III) of the Seventh Schedule?

Q.10) By which Constitutional Amendment Act was the language ‘Oriya’ renamed to ‘Odia’ in the Eighth Schedule?

Q.11) Which Schedule specifies the powers, authority, and responsibilities of Municipalities?

Q.12) Part XI of the Constitution deals with which of the following subjects?

Q.13) Elections are dealt with in which Part of the Constitution?

Q.14) Part XVII of the Constitution deals with which subject?

Q.15) Which Article of the Constitution deals with the “Abolition of untouchability”?

Q.16) Which Article guarantees the “Protection of life and personal liberty”?

Q.17) “Formation of new states and alteration of areas, boundaries or names of existing states” is dealt with under which Article?

Q.18) Which Article ensures “Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment”?

Q.19) “To promote equal justice and to provide free legal aid to the poor” is a Directive Principle specified under which Article?

Q.20) The Directive Principle “To protect and improve the environment and to safeguard forests and wild life” is found under which Article?

Q.21) Which Amendment Act of 1971 inserted Article 31C into the Constitution?

Q.22) The expression “Procedure established by Law” under Article 21 was borrowed from which country’s constitution?

Q.23) The principle of “freedom of trade, commerce and inter-course” was borrowed from the constitution of:

Q.24) The term “republic” in the Preamble indicates that India has an elected head (the President). How long is the fixed period for this office?

Q.25) Which Constitutional Amendment Act added the words “Socialist, Secular and Integrity” to the Preamble?

Q.26) Article 25 guarantees freedom of conscience and the right to freely profess, practice, and propagate religion. Are these rights available to non-citizens (foreigners)?

Q.27) Who among the following described the Preamble as the ‘key-note’ to the Constitution?

Q.28) Who was the Chairman of the Advisory Committee on Fundamental Rights, Minorities and Tribal and Excluded Areas in the Constituent Assembly?

Q.29) How many members did the Drafting Committee of the Constituent Assembly consist of?

Q.30) Which committee made general suggestions about autonomous areas, powers of provincial governments, and drafted a resolution closely resembling the Objectives Resolution?

📌 Quick Summary — Polity Set 23

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Q.1) Who among the following was the Chairman of the Order of Business Committee, a minor committee of the Constituent Assembly?

Q.2) Which minor committee of the Constituent Assembly was chaired by S. Varadachari (who was not an Assembly Member)?

Q.3) Part XIV-A of the Constitution, dealing with Tribunals, was added by which Constitutional Amendment Act?

Q.4) Which Part of the Constitution deals with the Municipalities?

Q.5) Article 31B and the Ninth Schedule were added to the Constitution by which Amendment Act to protect certain laws from judicial scrutiny?

Q.6) According to Article 31C, laws seeking to implement the socialistic directive principles specified in Article 39(b) or (c) shall NOT be void on the ground of contravention of which fundamental rights?

Q.7) In which case did the Supreme Court overrule its earlier verdict in the Golaknath case regarding the amendability of Fundamental Rights?

Q.8) According to the Seventh Schedule, what was the original number of subjects in the State List (List II) before amendments?

Q.9) What is the current number of subjects in the Concurrent List (List III) of the Seventh Schedule?

Q.10) By which Constitutional Amendment Act was the language ‘Oriya’ renamed to ‘Odia’ in the Eighth Schedule?

Q.11) Which Schedule specifies the powers, authority, and responsibilities of Municipalities?

Q.12) Part XI of the Constitution deals with which of the following subjects?

Q.13) Elections are dealt with in which Part of the Constitution?

Q.14) Part XVII of the Constitution deals with which subject?

Q.15) Which Article of the Constitution deals with the “Abolition of untouchability”?

Q.16) Which Article guarantees the “Protection of life and personal liberty”?

Q.17) “Formation of new states and alteration of areas, boundaries or names of existing states” is dealt with under which Article?

Q.18) Which Article ensures “Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment”?

Q.19) “To promote equal justice and to provide free legal aid to the poor” is a Directive Principle specified under which Article?

Q.20) The Directive Principle “To protect and improve the environment and to safeguard forests and wild life” is found under which Article?

Q.21) Which Amendment Act of 1971 inserted Article 31C into the Constitution?

Q.22) The expression “Procedure established by Law” under Article 21 was borrowed from which country’s constitution?

Q.23) The principle of “freedom of trade, commerce and inter-course” was borrowed from the constitution of:

Q.24) The term “republic” in the Preamble indicates that India has an elected head (the President). How long is the fixed period for this office?

Q.25) Which Constitutional Amendment Act added the words “Socialist, Secular and Integrity” to the Preamble?

Q.26) Article 25 guarantees freedom of conscience and the right to freely profess, practice, and propagate religion. Are these rights available to non-citizens (foreigners)?

Q.27) Who among the following described the Preamble as the ‘key-note’ to the Constitution?

Q.28) Who was the Chairman of the Advisory Committee on Fundamental Rights, Minorities and Tribal and Excluded Areas in the Constituent Assembly?

Q.29) How many members did the Drafting Committee of the Constituent Assembly consist of?

Q.30) Which committee made general suggestions about autonomous areas, powers of provincial governments, and drafted a resolution closely resembling the Objectives Resolution?

📌 Quick Summary — Polity Set 23

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