Modern History Set 72
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π British India β’ Governors-General
Q.1) The Regulating Act of 1773 designated the Governor of Bengal as the Governor-General of Bengal. Who was the first person to hold this office?
Ans > Warren Hastings
- Administrative Foundation: The Regulating Act of 1773 was a landmark legislative measure by the British Parliament, marking the very first direct intervention in the territorial administration of the East India Company in India.
- Elevation of Bengal: Prior to this act, the Presidencies of Bengal, Madras, and Bombay functioned independently. The act elevated the Governor of Bengal to the Governor-General of Bengal, subordinating the other two presidencies under his direct political and military control.
- Warren Hastings’ Legacy: Warren Hastings, who was already serving as the Governor of Bengal at the time, naturally transitioned into this newly created, highly powerful role. He established a four-member Executive Council to assist him in his sweeping administrative duties.
- Supreme Court Establishment: Alongside centralizing executive power, the Act also mandated the establishment of a Supreme Court of Judicature at Fort William (Calcutta) in 1774. It featured one Chief Justice (Sir Elijah Impey) and three other judges, deeply integrating British judicial systems into Indian administration for the first time.
- Prohibition on Private Trade: To curb massive internal corruption, the act strictly prohibited the servants of the Company from engaging in any private trade or accepting presents, donations, or bribes from the native population.
π British India β’ Acts & Policies
Q.2) Which British Charter Act explicitly introduced the system of open competition for the selection and recruitment of civil servants in India?
Ans > Charter Act of 1853
- End of Patronage: The Charter Act of 1853 definitively ended the highly corrupt patronage system previously enjoyed by the Court of Directors of the East India Company, where civil servants were essentially handpicked based on connections rather than merit.
- Open Competition: For the first time, it officially introduced a system of open competition for the covenanted civil service, declaring that the prestigious Indian Civil Service was now theoretically open to all citizens, including highly qualified Indians.
- The Macaulay Committee: Following the provisions of this Act, the British government appointed the Macaulay Committee (the Committee on the Indian Civil Service) in 1854 specifically to design and implement the rigorous competitive examination system in London.
- Separation of Powers: Crucially, this act marked the first time the legislative and executive functions of the Governor-General’s council were separated. It established a distinct Indian (Central) Legislative Council with six new members purely for legislative purposes.
- The Final Charter: This was the last of the series of Charter Acts passed by the British Parliament between 1793 and 1853. Unlike previous acts, it did not specify a particular time period (like 20 years) for the Company’s rule, hinting that the Crown could take over at any time.
π British India β’ Viceroys
Q.3) Following the Revolt of 1857, the title of ‘Viceroy’ was added to the Governor-General of India. Who was the first Viceroy of India?
Ans > Lord Canning
- The Great Mutiny: Lord Canning was serving as the Governor-General of India during the massive and bloody Revolt of 1857. After the rebellion was brutally suppressed, the British government realized the East India Company could no longer safely manage the subcontinent.
- Government of India Act 1858: Often called the “Act for the Good Government of India,” this legislation completely abolished the East India Company, the Court of Directors, and the Board of Control, transferring all administrative, territorial, and revenue powers directly to the British Crown.
- Creation of the Viceroy: Under this new administrative framework, the Governor-General received the additional, highly prestigious title of ‘Viceroy’ (meaning the direct personal representative of the British Monarch in India). Lord Canning naturally became the first individual to hold this dual title.
- The Queen’s Proclamation: It was Lord Canning who famously read out Queen Victoria’s Proclamation at the grand Allahabad Durbar on November 1, 1858, which officially announced the end of Company rule and promised religious tolerance and equal treatment for all Indian subjects.
- End of Doctrine of Lapse: One of Canning’s first major acts under the Crown’s direct rule was the official withdrawal of Lord Dalhousie’s highly controversial ‘Doctrine of Lapse’, assuring loyal Indian princes that their adopted heirs would be legally recognized.
π Administration β’ Legislative Acts
Q.4) The system of Portfolio (or Cabinet system) in the Indian Executive was formally recognized by which legislative act?
Ans > Indian Councils Act 1861
- Informal Origins: The portfolio system was actually first introduced informally by Lord Canning in 1859 to manage the overwhelming administrative burden following the 1857 revolt, but it lacked strict legal backing until the passage of the 1861 Act.
- Formal Recognition: The Indian Councils Act of 1861 officially codified this system, transforming the Viceroy’s executive council into a rudimentary cabinet. Each member was put in charge of one or more specific departments (like Home, Revenue, or Military) and could issue final orders on behalf of the entire council.
- Process of Decentralization: Reversing the heavily centralizing tendency that peaked with the Charter Act of 1833, this 1861 Act restored vital legislative powers to the regional Bombay and Madras Presidencies, marking the beginning of administrative decentralization.
- Entry of Indians: For the very first time, the act allowed the Viceroy to nominate non-official Indian members to his expanded legislative council. In 1862, Lord Canning nominated three prominent Indians: the Raja of Benaras, the Maharaja of Patiala, and Sir Dinkar Rao.
- Ordinance Power: Crucially, the act empowered the Viceroy to issue emergency ordinances without the concurrence of the legislative council during a crisis. These highly authoritarian ordinances were valid for a maximum period of six months.
π Administration β’ Dyarchy
Q.5) The system of ‘Dyarchy’ (dual administration) at the provincial level was introduced in India by which of the following Acts?
Ans > Government of India Act 1919
- Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms: The Government of India Act 1919 was the legal enactment of the political reforms jointly drafted by Edwin Montagu (Secretary of State for India) and Lord Chelmsford (the Viceroy), widely known as the Mont-Ford Reforms.
- The Concept of Dyarchy: ‘Dyarchy’ translates roughly to dual rule. The Act drastically altered provincial administration by dividing provincial subjects into two distinct categories: ‘Transferred’ subjects and ‘Reserved’ subjects.
- Transferred vs. Reserved: ‘Transferred’ subjects (like education, health, agriculture, and local self-government) were administered by the Governor with the aid of Indian ministers responsible to the legislative council. ‘Reserved’ subjects (like police, justice, finance, and land revenue) remained under the absolute control of the Governor and his executive council.
- Bicameralism at the Center: While introducing dyarchy at the provinces, the Act introduced a bicameral legislature at the Center for the first time, consisting of an Upper House (Council of State) and a Lower House (Legislative Assembly), heavily based on direct elections.
- Expansion of Communal Electorates: Despite massive nationalist opposition, the Act further extended the highly divisive principle of communal representation (first introduced for Muslims in 1909) by providing separate, exclusive electorates for Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, and Europeans.
π British India β’ Infrastructure
Q.6) Which British Governor-General is often referred to as the ‘Maker of Modern India’ for introducing railways, the telegraph, and the postal system?
Ans > Lord Dalhousie
- Infrastructural Revolution: Lord Dalhousie’s tenure (1848-1856) is defined by massive modernization. He famously inaugurated India’s first commercial railway line running 34 kilometers from Bombay to Thane in 1853, fundamentally altering transport and trade.
- Telegraph and Postal Systems: He aggressively expanded the electric telegraph network, connecting major cities like Calcutta, Peshawar, Bombay, and Madras. Furthermore, he passed the Post Office Act of 1854, introducing uniform postage rates and standardizing the postal system across the subcontinent.
- Public Works Department (PWD): Before Dalhousie, military boards handled civil engineering. He established a dedicated, civilian Public Works Department to aggressively construct roads, bridges, and massive irrigation projects like the monumental Ganges Canal.
- Educational Reforms: His tenure saw the implementation of Charles Wood’s Despatch (1854), often called the ‘Magna Carta of English Education in India’, which established a clear hierarchy of schools and mandated the creation of universities in the presidency towns.
- The Doctrine of Lapse: Despite his modernizing zeal, he is equally remembered for his ruthless, imperialistic annexation policy known as the ‘Doctrine of Lapse’. He aggressively annexed prosperous states like Satara, Jhansi, and Nagpur when their rulers died without a natural biological male heir, deeply antagonizing the Indian aristocracy.
π British India β’ Census & Administration
Q.7) In 1871, the first synchronized census of India was organized, and the Department of Agriculture and Commerce was established during the tenure of which Viceroy?
Ans > Lord Mayo
- The First Census: The very first census of the Indian population was conducted during Lord Mayo’s tenure in 1871-72. While it was not perfectly synchronous across all regions, it laid the vital bureaucratic groundwork for all future demographic data collection in India. (The first truly complete and synchronized census followed in 1881 under Lord Ripon).
- Financial Decentralization: Lord Mayo is highly regarded for initiating the complex process of financial decentralization in India in 1870. He allocated fixed, guaranteed sums to the provincial governments to administer local services like police, jails, education, and roads, reducing the massive friction between the center and provinces.
- Statistical Survey of India: Realizing the British administration lacked concrete data on the vast territory, he organized the massive Statistical Survey of India under the direction of William Wilson Hunter to meticulously map local economies, castes, and geography.
- Educational Institutions for Royals: To ensure the loyalty of the Indian aristocracy, he founded the Rajkot College in Kathiawar and the famous Mayo College in Ajmer specifically for the political and Western education of the young sons of Indian princes and chiefs.
- Assassination: Lord Mayo holds the grim distinction of being the only Viceroy to be assassinated in office. He was brutally stabbed to death in 1872 by a disgruntled convict named Sher Ali Afridi while inspecting the harsh penal settlement at Port Blair in the Andaman Islands.
π British India β’ Press Restrictions
Q.8) The controversial Vernacular Press Act, designed to severely restrict the freedom of the Indian language press, was enacted in 1878 by which Viceroy?
Ans > Lord Lytton
- The Gagging Act: Enacted by the highly unpopular Viceroy Lord Lytton in 1878, the Vernacular Press Act was explicitly designed to ruthlessly suppress seditious writing and growing anti-imperialist sentiment circulating in native-language newspapers. It was widely nicknamed the “Gagging Act.”
- Discriminatory Nature: The most offensive aspect of the act was its blatant discrimination; it applied strictly to vernacular (Indian language) newspapers while completely exempting English-language publications, revealing a deep racial and political bias.
- Confiscation of Assets: The act gave absolute, unchecked power to district magistrates to demand heavy security deposits from local printers and publishers. If a newspaper printed anything deemed “objectionable,” the magistrate could instantly confiscate their entire printing press and machinery without any right of appeal in a court of law.
- The Amrita Bazar Patrika Escape: In a legendary act of defiance, the heavily targeted Bengali newspaper ‘Amrita Bazar Patrika’ ingeniously converted itself into an English-language daily literally overnight, completely bypassing the legal constraints of the Vernacular Press Act.
- Repeal by Ripon: The act caused massive, organized political uproar across the country and served as a catalyst for early nationalist unity. It was eventually repealed just a few years later, in 1882, by Lytton’s successor, the liberal-minded Lord Ripon.
π Nationalist Movement β’ INC Foundation
Q.9) The Indian National Congress (INC) was founded in 1885 during the viceroyalty of whom?
Ans > Lord Dufferin
- Formation of the Congress: The Indian National Congress was formally established in 1885 by Allan Octavian Hume, a retired British civil servant, exactly during the tenure of Lord Dufferin as the Viceroy of India.
- The First Session: The inaugural session of the INC was held at the Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College in Bombay in December 1885. It was presided over by Womesh Chandra (W.C.) Bonnerjee and attended by 72 highly educated delegates from across the country.
- The Safety Valve Theory: Many historical analysts believe that Hume founded the Congress with Lord Dufferin’s tacit approval to act as a “safety valve.” The idea was to provide a peaceful, legal outlet for the growing political frustrations of educated Indians, thereby preventing another violent uprising like the 1857 mutiny.
- Dufferin’s Hostility: While Dufferin was initially neutral or mildly supportive of the Congress, his attitude quickly turned hostile as the INC began demanding significant administrative reforms. In 1887, he infamously mocked the Congress in a public speech, declaring that it represented only a “microscopic minority” of the Indian population.
- Other Events under Dufferin: Aside from the birth of the INC, Lord Dufferin’s viceroyalty was marked by aggressive British expansionism, most notably the Third Anglo-Burmese War (1885), which resulted in the complete annexation of Upper Burma into the British Indian Empire.
π Nationalist Movement β’ Partition of Bengal
Q.10) The historic partition of Bengal in 1905, which sparked the Swadeshi Movement, was executed by which British Viceroy?
Ans > Lord Curzon
- Administrative Excuse vs. Political Reality: Lord Curzon officially justified the partition of the massive Bengal Presidency by claiming it was too large for a single governor to administer efficiently. However, the real political motive was to ruthlessly implement a “divide and rule” strategy to weaken the nerve center of Indian nationalism.
- The Dividing Lines: The partition formally took effect on October 16, 1905. It split the province into a Hindu-majority West Bengal (including Bihar and Orissa) and a newly created Muslim-majority province of Eastern Bengal and Assam, with its capital at Dacca.
- Birth of the Swadeshi Movement: The partition announcement sparked immediate, massive, and spontaneous outrage across the country. It directly triggered the Swadeshi Movement, which advocated the boycott of British manufactured goods and the aggressive promotion of indigenous Indian industries and national education.
- Vande Mataram as an Anthem: During the massive anti-partition protests, Bankim Chandra Chatterjee’s song ‘Vande Mataram’ became the definitive rallying cry and the unofficial national anthem of the fiercely united Bengali resistance against Curzon’s policies.
- Curzon’s Other Controversial Acts: Lord Curzon was known for his highly centralized and authoritarian policies. Beyond the partition, he deeply angered the Indian intelligentsia by passing the Calcutta Corporation Act (1899), which reduced Indian representation, and the Indian Universities Act (1904), which sought to bring higher education under strict government control to stifle political activism.
π British India β’ Delhi Durbar
Q.11) In 1911, a grand Durbar was held in Delhi where the annulment of the partition of Bengal was announced. Who was the Viceroy at this time?
Ans > Lord Hardinge II
- The Royal Visit: The 1911 Delhi Durbar was an event of unprecedented scale and grandeur, organized entirely to commemorate the coronation of King George V and Queen Mary. It was the only time a reigning British monarch personally visited India during the entire period of imperial rule.
- Annulment of Partition: Under immense and sustained political pressure from the ongoing Swadeshi agitation, King George V used the Durbar to publicly announce the annulment of Lord Curzon’s highly hated 1905 partition of Bengal, reuniting the Bengali-speaking regions into a single province to appease nationalist sentiment.
- Shifting the Capital: The second massive historical announcement made at the 1911 Durbar was the strategic decision to shift the capital of the British Indian Empire from the politically volatile city of Calcutta to the historically significant, centrally located city of Delhi.
- The Delhi Conspiracy Case: The shift to Delhi deeply angered radical revolutionaries. On December 23, 1912, as Lord Hardinge II was making his formal state entry into the new capital riding on an elephant, a bomb was hurled at him in Chandni Chowk. He was severely injured but survived. The assassination attempt was masterminded by the revolutionary leader Rash Behari Bose.
- World War I Breakout: Lord Hardinge II’s tenure (1910-1916) also coincided with the outbreak of the First World War in 1914. He successfully managed to secure the vast support of Indian political leaders and sent massive numbers of Indian troops and resources to fight for the British Empire in Europe and the Middle East.
π Nationalist Movement β’ Massacres & Protests
Q.12) The tragic Jallianwala Bagh massacre (1919) and the launch of the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920) occurred during the tenure of which Viceroy?
Ans > Lord Chelmsford
- The Rowlatt Act: Lord Chelmsford’s highly turbulent viceroyalty (1916-1921) saw the passing of the draconian Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act of 1919, universally known as the Rowlatt Act. This infamous law allowed the British to arrest and incarcerate any Indian without trial for up to two years, violating basic civil liberties.
- The Amritsar Tragedy: In protest against the Rowlatt Act and the sudden arrest of prominent local leaders Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr. Satyapal, a large, peaceful crowd gathered at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar on Baisakhi day (April 13, 1919). General Reginald Dyer brutally ordered his troops to open fire on the unarmed, trapped civilians, killing hundreds.
- The Hunter Commission: Facing massive global and domestic outrage, Lord Chelmsford’s government appointed the Hunter Commission (officially the Disorders Inquiry Committee) to investigate the massacre. However, the commission’s report was widely seen as a whitewash, leading to deep national disillusionment with British justice.
- Khilafat and Non-Cooperation: The brutal aftermath of Jallianwala Bagh, combined with the harsh treatment of the Ottoman Caliphate after WWI (the Khilafat issue), directly pushed Mahatma Gandhi to launch the massive, nationwide Non-Cooperation Movement in 1920, demanding complete boycott of British institutions.
- Constitutional Reforms: Amidst this extreme political chaos, Chelmsford’s tenure also saw the passing of the Government of India Act 1919 (the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms), which introduced the complex system of ‘Dyarchy’ in the provinces in an attempt to offer limited self-government.
π Nationalist Movement β’ Chauri Chaura
Q.13) The Chauri Chaura incident (1922), which led to the suspension of the Non-Cooperation Movement, took place during the viceroyalty of whom?
Ans > Lord Reading
- The Violent Pivot: In February 1922, during the absolute peak of the nationwide Non-Cooperation Movement, an angry mob of protesting peasants violently clashed with police in Chauri Chaura, a village in the United Provinces (Uttar Pradesh). The mob chased the police into their station and set it on fire, burning 22 policemen alive.
- Gandhi’s Moral Stand: Deeply disturbed by the horrific violence and strictly adhering to his core principle of absolute non-violence (Ahimsa), Mahatma Gandhi abruptly called off the entire Non-Cooperation Movement via the Bardoli resolution, shocking many top Congress leaders like Subhas Chandra Bose and Jawaharlal Nehru.
- Lord Reading’s Administration: This massive turning point in the Indian freedom struggle occurred exactly while Lord Reading (Rufus Isaacs) served as the Viceroy of India (1921-1926). He was notably the only Jewish Viceroy of British India.
- Formation of the Swaraj Party: Following the sudden suspension of the movement and Gandhi’s subsequent imprisonment, a massive ideological split occurred within the Congress. Pro-changers led by C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru formed the Swaraj Party in 1923 to contest elections and wreck the British administration from within the legislative councils.
- Repeal of Draconian Laws: Interestingly, to calm the extremely volatile political atmosphere, Lord Reading’s tenure saw the official repeal of several heavily hated laws, most notably the draconian Rowlatt Act of 1919 and the highly restrictive Press Act of 1910.
π Nationalist Movement β’ Purna Swaraj
Q.14) The historic Lahore Session of the INC (1929), where the ‘Purna Swaraj’ resolution was adopted, happened during the tenure of which Viceroy?
Ans > Lord Irwin
- The Goal of Complete Independence: Under the dynamic presidency of a young Jawaharlal Nehru, the Indian National Congress held its highly historic session in Lahore in December 1929. Frustrated with British delays, the Congress formally abandoned the demand for mere Dominion Status and adopted the resolution for ‘Purna Swaraj’ or Complete Independence.
- The First Independence Day: Following the Lahore resolution, the newly adopted tricolor flag of India was hoisted on the banks of the river Ravi on midnight of December 31, 1929. The Congress officially declared that January 26, 1930, would be celebrated nationwide as the first ‘Independence Day’.
- The Salt March: To tangibly achieve this Purna Swaraj, Mahatma Gandhi launched the massive Civil Disobedience Movement in 1930 by undertaking the legendary Dandi March (Salt Satyagraha), directly defying the oppressive British monopoly and tax on salt.
- The Simon Commission Boycott: All these highly charged political events occurred during the viceroyalty of Lord Irwin (1926-1931). His tenure earlier witnessed the arrival of the all-white Simon Commission in 1928, which was met with massive nationwide boycotts and black flags bearing the slogan “Simon Go Back.”
- The Gandhi-Irwin Pact: The massive success of the Civil Disobedience Movement forced the British administration to the negotiating table. In March 1931, the famous Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed, leading to the temporary suspension of the movement and Gandhi’s agreement to attend the Second Round Table Conference in London.
π British India β’ Communal Politics
Q.15) The ‘Communal Award’ of 1932, which granted separate electorates to the depressed classes, was announced during the viceroyalty of whom?
Ans > Lord Willingdon
- The MacDonald Award: Announced by the British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald in August 1932, the Communal Award was a highly controversial document. It heavily extended the divisive system of separate electoratesβpreviously granted only to Muslims, Sikhs, and Christiansβto the “Depressed Classes” (now known as Dalits or Scheduled Castes).
- Divide and Rule Tactics: Nationalists saw the award as a deeply cynical British attempt to permanently fracture Hindu society by creating a distinct political wedge between upper castes and the depressed classes, severely undermining the united national movement.
- Gandhi’s Epic Fast: Deeply distressed by the award’s implications for social unity, Mahatma Gandhi, who was incarcerated in the Yerwada Central Jail in Poona, commenced a severe “fast unto death” in September 1932, demanding the absolute withdrawal of separate electorates for the depressed classes.
- The Poona Pact: Gandhi’s deteriorating health forced intense political negotiations. The crisis was resolved through the historic Poona Pact (1932), signed between Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (representing the depressed classes) and Madan Mohan Malaviya (representing caste Hindus). The pact abandoned separate electorates in favor of a vastly increased number of reserved seats for the depressed classes within the general Hindu electorate.
- Lord Willingdon’s Harsh Regime: These massive socio-political upheavals occurred during the viceroyalty of Lord Willingdon (1931-1936). His tenure was characterized by extreme, ruthless repression of the Second Civil Disobedience Movement, passing harsh ordinances, and imprisoning tens of thousands of Congress workers without trial.
π Nationalist Movement β’ Quit India
Q.16) The Quit India Movement was launched in August 1942 during the tenure of which Viceroy?
Ans > Lord Linlithgow
- Failure of the Cripps Mission: In early 1942, with Japanese forces advancing rapidly toward India’s eastern borders during WWII, the British dispatched the Cripps Mission to secure full Indian cooperation. The mission’s offer of dominion status *after* the war was utterly rejected by the Congress, with Gandhi famously calling it a “post-dated cheque on a crashing bank.”
- The Gowalia Tank Resolution: Frustrated by British intransigence, the All-India Congress Committee met at the Gowalia Tank Maidan in Bombay on August 8, 1942. They passed the historic ‘Quit India’ resolution, demanding an immediate and complete end to British rule in India.
- The ‘Do or Die’ Call: It was during this momentous session that Mahatma Gandhi delivered his passionate, electrifying speech, giving the masses the ultimate mantra: “Do or Die” (Karo ya Maro), signaling that this was the final, decisive struggle for freedom.
- Operation Zero Hour: Lord Linlithgow’s administration responded with terrifying speed and brutality. Before dawn on August 9, in an action known as Operation Zero Hour, the British arrested Gandhi, Nehru, Patel, and the entire top-tier Congress leadership, plunging the movement into a leaderless, chaotic, but highly violent nationwide uprising.
- Underground Resistance: With the main leaders jailed, young socialists like Jayaprakash Narayan, Ram Manohar Lohia, and Aruna Asaf Ali led massive underground resistance movements, disrupting railway lines, cutting telegraph wires, and setting up parallel governments in places like Ballia and Satara.
π Nationalist Movement β’ Transfer of Power
Q.17) The Cabinet Mission arrived in India in 1946 to negotiate the transfer of power. Who was the Viceroy of India at that time?
Ans > Lord Wavell
- Post-War Political Reality: By 1946, the newly elected Labour government in Britain, led by Prime Minister Clement Attlee, realized that holding onto India was militarily and economically impossible. They dispatched the high-powered Cabinet Mission to New Delhi to negotiate the final, peaceful transfer of power to Indian leaders.
- Composition of the Mission: The mission comprised three incredibly senior British cabinet ministers: Lord Pethick-Lawrence (Secretary of State for India), Sir Stafford Cripps (President of the Board of Trade), and A.V. Alexander (First Lord of the Admiralty).
- Rejection of Pakistan: The Cabinet Mission Plan explicitly and firmly rejected the Muslim League’s demand for a fully separate, sovereign state of Pakistan. Instead, it proposed a highly complex, three-tier administrative structure (a weak central government handling only defense, foreign affairs, and communications, with powerful, grouped provinces).
- The Interim Government: Although both the Congress and the Muslim League initially accepted parts of the plan with massive reservations, it successfully paved the way for the formation of an Interim Government in September 1946, headed by Jawaharlal Nehru as the Vice-President of the Viceroy’s Executive Council.
- Direct Action Day: The breakdown of trust over interpreting the Cabinet Mission plan led Muhammad Ali Jinnah to withdraw his acceptance and call for “Direct Action Day” on August 16, 1946. This resulted in the horrific Great Calcutta Killings, sparking massive communal riots across the country during Lord Wavell’s tenure.
π Social Reformers β’ Indian Renaissance
Q.18) Which prominent reformer is widely regarded as the ‘Father of the Indian Renaissance’ for his pioneering efforts in eradicating social evils like Sati?
Ans > Raja Rammohan Roy
- The Dawn of Modern India: Raja Rammohan Roy is universally acclaimed as the “Father of the Indian Renaissance” and the pioneer of modern Indian political and social thought. He was the first to boldly apply rationalist principles and Western enlightenment ideas to critique deeply entrenched Hindu orthodoxy.
- Founding the Brahmo Samaj: In 1828, he founded the Brahmo Sabha, which later evolved into the highly influential Brahmo Samaj. The Samaj fiercely advocated for strict monotheism (worship of one formless God), firmly rejected idol worship, and vehemently opposed the oppressive caste system and meaningless rituals.
- The Crusade Against Sati: Roy’s most monumental historical achievement was his relentless, decades-long socio-religious campaign against the brutal practice of Sati (the burning of widows on their husbands’ funeral pyres). He used ancient Hindu scriptures to prove the practice had no religious sanction, heavily influencing Governor-General Lord William Bentinck to legally abolish Sati via a strict regulation in 1829.
- Advocacy for Western Education: Recognizing the absolute necessity of modern science for India’s progress, he strongly opposed the British government’s plan to only fund traditional Sanskrit education. He actively helped David Hare establish the famous Hindu College in Calcutta (1817) and founded the Vedanta College, blending Indian philosophy with Western sciences.
- The Title of “Raja”: The prestigious title of ‘Raja’ was bestowed upon him by the titular Mughal Emperor Akbar II. The emperor specifically sent Roy to England in 1830 as his official ambassador to petition the British King for an increase in his royal pension. Roy tragically died in Bristol, England, in 1833.
π Press History β’ Journalism
Q.19) Raja Rammohan Roy was a pioneer of Indian journalism. Which prominent Persian language newspaper did he publish?
Ans > Mirat-ul-Akbar
- The Power of the Press: Raja Rammohan Roy was one of the very first Indian intellectuals to deeply understand the massive potential of the printing press as a vehicle for widespread political awakening, social reform, and educating the masses on rationalist principles.
- Mirat-ul-Akbar: In 1822, he launched the highly influential ‘Mirat-ul-Akbar’ (meaning ‘Mirror of News’). This was the very first Persian language journal published in India, aimed at reaching the educated elite across the country, as Persian was still the primary language of the courts and administration.
- Sambad Kaumudi: Earlier, in 1821, he started the pioneering Bengali weekly ‘Sambad Kaumudi’ (The Moon of Intelligence). This newspaper became his primary weapon in his fierce public crusade against the horrific practice of Sati, using it to publish debates, scriptural translations, and reformist essays.
- Fight for Press Freedom: Roy was a staunch, uncompromising advocate for a free press. When the acting Governor-General John Adams issued the draconian Press Ordinance of 1823 (which required rigorous licensing and censorship), Roy bravely shut down ‘Mirat-ul-Akbar’ in protest rather than submit to degrading government censorship.
- Petitions to the Crown: He didn’t just shut down his paper; he co-authored a brilliant, legally sound petition to the Supreme Court and subsequently to the British Privy Council, powerfully arguing that a free press was an absolute necessity for good governance and the prevention of tyranny in India.
π Press History β’ Vernacular Press
Q.20) The nationalist newspaper Amrita Bazar Patrika was famously converted from Bengali to English overnight in 1878 to evade the Vernacular Press Act. Who founded it?
Ans > Sisir Kumar Ghosh and Motilal Ghosh
- Origins in a Village: The highly influential newspaper ‘Amrita Bazar Patrika’ was founded in 1868 by two brilliant brothers, Sisir Kumar Ghosh and Motilal Ghosh. Remarkably, it was started not in a major city, but in a small village named Amrita Bazar in the Jessore district (now in Bangladesh) before eventually moving to Calcutta.
- Fearless Investigative Journalism: The newspaper quickly gained a massive reputation for its fearless, biting investigative journalism. It constantly exposed the extreme corruption, racism, and sheer administrative incompetence of the British colonial bureaucracy, making it a major thorn in the side of the government.
- Target of the Gagging Act: Because of its massive popularity and highly seditious, anti-imperialist tone, the Patrika was the primary target when the draconian Viceroy Lord Lytton enacted the Vernacular Press Act in 1878 to aggressively crush Indian-language newspapers.
- The Overnight Transformation: In a stroke of absolute genius that humiliated the British administration, the publishers utilized the specific loophole in the law (which only targeted vernacular languages). The very next morning after the Act was passed, the Patrika appeared entirely in English, completely evading the new censorship laws.
- Support for Extremism: Over the decades, the newspaper remained a massive pillar of nationalist thought. Under Motilal Ghosh’s editorship, it strongly supported the aggressive extremist faction of the Congress led by Bal Gangadhar Tilak and heavily criticized the moderate ‘petition politics’ of leaders like Gopal Krishna Gokhale.
π Press History β’ Extremist Leaders
Q.21) The powerful nationalist newspapers Kesari (Marathi) and Mahratta (English) were utilized to awaken the masses by which extremist leader?
Ans > Bal Gangadhar Tilak
- The Father of Indian Unrest: Bal Gangadhar Tilak, famously described by the British journalist Valentine Chirol as the “father of Indian unrest,” was the most prominent leader of the extremist faction within the Indian National Congress, fiercely advocating for direct mass action over polite petitions.
- Dual Language Strategy: In 1881, Tilak and his associates launched two highly influential weekly newspapers: ‘Kesari’ (The Lion) in the local Marathi language to radicalize the common masses of Maharashtra, and ‘Mahratta’ in English to address the highly educated intelligentsia across India.
- Fierce Editorials: Through fiery, unapologetic editorials in Kesari, Tilak relentlessly attacked British administrative policies, strongly defended the right to rebel against oppressive foreign rule, and famously declared his ultimate political goal: “Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it.”
- Cultural Mobilization: He brilliantly used his newspapers to promote massive public celebrations of the Ganapati festival (1893) and the Shivaji festival (1895). He transformed these traditional religious and historical events into massive, highly organized political rallies to instill immense nationalist pride and unity among the youth.
- Sedition Trials: Tilak’s fearless writing cost him dearly. His defense of revolutionary activities (like the assassination of the Plague Commissioner Rand by the Chapekar brothers) led to multiple brutal sedition trials. In 1908, he was convicted of sedition for his writings in Kesari and sentenced to six years of rigorous imprisonment in Mandalay, Burma.
π Press History β’ Nationalist Unity
Q.22) The Urdu weekly Al Hilal, which played a vital role in forging Hindu-Muslim unity and spreading nationalist ideas, was started in 1912 by whom?
Ans > Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
- A New Voice in Urdu Journalism: In 1912, a brilliant young Islamic scholar and deeply committed Indian nationalist, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, launched the highly influential Urdu weekly newspaper named ‘Al Hilal’ (The Crescent) from Calcutta.
- Countering Separatism: The primary, driving political objective of Al Hilal was to actively counter the growing separatist and loyalist politics heavily promoted by the Muslim League and the Aligarh establishment. Azad used the paper to passionately urge Indian Muslims to join the mainstream, anti-imperialist freedom struggle alongside Hindus.
- Literary and Political Impact: The newspaper was a massive success, reaching a circulation of over 25,000 within two years. It was widely celebrated for its incredibly high literary quality, its use of Islamic theology to justify the fight against foreign tyranny, and its fierce, uncompromising criticism of British imperialism.
- Suppression by the British: The British colonial administration was deeply alarmed by the massive popularity and heavily radicalizing tone of Al Hilal. Using the stringent provisions of the Press Act of 1914, the government heavily fined the publication and eventually confiscated its entire printing press, forcing it to shut down.
- Launch of Al Balagh: Undeterred by the brutal suppression, Maulana Azad almost immediately launched another highly nationalist journal named ‘Al Balagh’ in 1915 to continue his mission, until he was completely exiled from Calcutta and interned in Ranchi under the Defence of India Regulations in 1916.
π Social Reformers β’ Educational Institutions
Q.23) The Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh, which later became Aligarh Muslim University (AMU), was founded in 1875 by whom?
Ans > Sir Syed Ahmed Khan
- The Aligarh Movement: Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was the visionary architect of the Aligarh Movement, a massive socio-cultural awakening aimed strictly at pulling the Indian Muslim community out of its deep post-1857 political depression and educational backwardness.
- Advocacy for Western Education: Sir Syed firmly believed that the Muslim community’s absolute refusal to learn the English language and accept modern Western sciences was the primary reason for their severe decline. He actively campaigned for a pragmatic reconciliation between traditional Islamic teachings and modern scientific inquiry.
- Founding the MAO College: To practically execute his vision, he established the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental (MAO) College in Aligarh in 1875. The institution was intentionally modeled on the prestigious Oxford and Cambridge universities, aiming to produce a new generation of highly educated Muslim professionals and civil servants.
- Evolution into AMU: The MAO College became the absolute epicenter of Muslim intellectual life in India. Decades after Sir Syed’s death, the college was massively upgraded and formally converted into the prestigious Aligarh Muslim University (AMU) by an Act of the central legislature in 1920.
- Political Stance: While a giant in educational reform, Sir Syed’s political stance was highly controversial among nationalists. He strongly advised Muslims to remain totally loyal to the British rule and actively discouraged them from joining the newly formed Indian National Congress, fearing it would lead to Hindu majoritarian dominance.
π Nationalist Organizations β’ Social Service
Q.24) The ‘Servants of India Society’ was founded in 1905 to train national missionaries for the service of the country. Who was its founder?
Ans > Gopal Krishna Gokhale
- The Moderate Stalwart: Gopal Krishna Gokhale was one of the most respected and intellectually brilliant leaders of the moderate faction of the Indian National Congress. He firmly believed in gradual constitutional reforms and the spiritualization of public life over violent agitation.
- Founding the Society: In 1905 (the same year he served as the President of the INC at the Banaras session), Gokhale founded the ‘Servants of India Society’ in Pune. He recognized that the national movement desperately needed full-time, highly trained workers, not just part-time politicians.
- Missionaries for the Nation: The primary, strict objective of the society was to build a disciplined cadre of “national missionaries.” Members had to take rigorous vows of poverty, promising to dedicate their entire lives exclusively to the service of the country without seeking any personal wealth or political office.
- Focus Areas of Work: Unlike radical political groups, the Servants of India Society focused heavily on deep, grassroots social work. Their massive efforts were directed toward promoting primary education, eradicating the horrific practice of untouchability, elevating the status of women, and organizing large-scale famine and flood relief operations.
- Mentorship of Gandhi: Gokhale’s deep commitment to non-violence and ethical politics profoundly influenced a young Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. Upon his return from South Africa, Gandhi sought Gokhale’s advice and famously referred to him as his absolute “political guru.”
π Pre-Congress Organizations β’ Political Associations
Q.25) The Indian Association of Calcutta, founded in 1876, was one of the most important pre-Congress nationalist organizations. It was led by Anand Mohan Bose and whom?
Ans > Surendranath Banerjea
- The Nationalist Orator: Surendranath Banerjea, widely known as the ‘Uncrowned King of Bengal’, was one of the earliest and most powerful political leaders of modern India. He was one of the very first Indians to clear the grueling Indian Civil Service (ICS) examination, though he was unfairly dismissed on minor technical grounds by the racist British administration.
- Founding the Association: Channeling his immense frustration into political activism, Banerjea partnered with the brilliant Anand Mohan Bose to establish the Indian Association in Calcutta in 1876. They intentionally created this new organization because the older British Indian Association was heavily dominated by wealthy, conservative landlords.
- Unifying the Middle Class: The explicit, ambitious goal of the Indian Association was to actively create a strong, unified body of public opinion on political questions and to unite Indians across different regions on common political interests, essentially acting as the voice of the educated middle class.
- The Civil Service Agitation: The association gained massive national prominence when it organized a highly successful, nationwide political agitation in 1877 against the British government’s deliberate, racist decision to reduce the maximum age limit for the ICS examination from 21 to 19 years, which was aimed at keeping Indians out.
- Precursor to the Congress: The Indian Association organized the highly successful National Conference in Calcutta in 1883 and 1885, bringing together delegates from across India. This massive organizational effort laid the direct, vital groundwork for the establishment of the Indian National Congress in 1885, into which the Association eventually merged.
π Peasant Uprisings β’ Bengal
Q.26) The historic Indigo Revolt (1859-60) in Bengal was initiated by Digambar Biswas and Bishnucharan Biswas in which district?
Ans > Nadia
- The Exploitative Dadani System: The Indigo Revolt (or Nil Bidroha) was a massive peasant uprising caused by the extreme brutality of European planters. Under the ‘dadani’ system, planters forced illiterate ryots (peasants) to accept meager cash advances and sign fraudulent contracts compelling them to grow indigo on their best lands instead of vital food crops, leading to mass starvation.
- The Spark in Nadia: The breaking point arrived in late 1859 in the Chaugacha village of the Nadia district in Bengal. Two immensely brave peasant leaders, Digambar Biswas and Bishnucharan Biswas, organized the ryots and took a solemn oath to completely refuse to sow any indigo, no matter the consequences.
- Massive Non-Violent Strike: The movement rapidly spread like wildfire across Bengal (especially in Murshidabad, Birbhum, and Burdwan). It was remarkably well-organized, utilizing social boycotts of planters, coordinated rent strikes, and a unified refusal to physically plant the crop, effectively paralyzing the entire indigo industry.
- Support of the Intelligentsia: Unlike earlier isolated tribal revolts, the Indigo strike received massive, unprecedented support from the educated Bengali middle class in Calcutta. Journalists like Harish Chandra Mukherjee wrote fiery editorials in ‘The Hindu Patriot’ exposing the planters’ sheer brutality and raising legal defense funds for the peasants.
- The Indigo Commission: The sheer scale of the revolt and the massive public outcry forced the panicked British government to appoint the Indigo Commission in 1860. The commission’s final report definitively condemned the highly coercive system, officially ruling that peasants could not be legally forced to cultivate indigo, leading to the collapse of the planter system in Bengal.
π Peasant Uprisings β’ Literature
Q.27) The plight of the indigo cultivators was vividly portrayed in the famous Bengali play Nil Darpan. Who authored this play?
Ans > Dinabandhu Mitra
- Literary Activism: During the height of the Indigo Revolt in 1860, the brilliant Bengali writer Dinabandhu Mitra authored the seminal play ‘Nil Darpan’ (The Indigo Planting Mirror). It was one of the very first instances in Indian history where literature was heavily utilized as a direct tool for social and political protest.
- Exposing the Horrors: The play provided a horrifyingly realistic, heartbreaking depiction of the absolute tyranny of the European indigo planters. It vividly showcased their use of physical torture, illegal confinement, massive financial extortion, and horrific violence against the helpless peasant families (ryots) to force indigo cultivation.
- The Controversial Translation: Realizing the play needed to reach the British authorities, it was translated into English under the title ‘Nil Darpan, or The Indigo Planting Mirror’. While published anonymously, it is widely believed that the legendary poet Michael Madhusudan Dutt secretly translated the work.
- The Reverend James Long Trial: The English translation was courageously published and distributed by Reverend James Long, a highly sympathetic British missionary. The furious European planter community successfully sued him for libel. In a highly publicized trial, Long was heavily fined (which a wealthy Indian patron paid on the spot) and sentenced to a month in jail, generating massive national sympathy.
- Historical Impact: ‘Nil Darpan’ had a profound, lasting impact on the Indian nationalist psyche, comparable to the effect ‘Uncle Tom’s Cabin’ had in the United States. It successfully brought the massive, silent suffering of rural India into the drawing rooms of the urban intelligentsia, bridging a critical political divide.
π Peasant Uprisings β’ Agrarian Leagues
Q.28) The Pabna Agrarian Leagues, formed in the 1870s to resist the oppressive exactions of zamindars, were heavily localized in which specific region of Bengal?
Ans > Yusufshahi Pargana
- Zamindari Oppression: During the early 1870s, the powerful landlords (zamindars) in the Pabna district of Eastern Bengal engaged in severe oppression. They routinely imposed highly arbitrary and illegal taxes (abwabs) and aggressively attempted to raise land rents far beyond the legal limits set by the Rent Act of 1859.
- The Epicenter of Resistance: The massive resistance against this extreme economic extortion began specifically in the Yusufshahi Pargana of the Pabna district in May 1873. The highly organized peasants formed an Agrarian League (Krishak Sabha) to formally mount a unified challenge to the zamindars.
- Legal and Peaceful Agitation: Unlike the violent tribal uprisings of the past, the Pabna movement was highly distinct because it was largely peaceful and deeply legalistic. The peasants primarily utilized organized rent strikes (refusing to pay the illegally enhanced rents) and raised massive collective funds to fiercely fight the zamindars in British courts.
- Targeting Landlords, Not the State: The leaders of the Pabna movement specifically aimed their massive protests solely at the oppressive zamindars and explicitly claimed to be loyal subjects of the British Queen. Their primary demand was to be the “Queen’s ryots” directly, bypassing the exploitative intermediaries.
- Legislative Outcome: The highly disciplined nature of the Pabna agrarian leagues forced the British government to intervene. The agitation directly resulted in a massive inquiry, which ultimately culminated in the passing of the landmark Bengal Tenancy Act of 1885, granting significantly enhanced occupancy rights and legal protections to the tenant farmers.
π Peasant Uprisings β’ Maharashtra
Q.29) The Deccan Riots of 1875 were an agrarian revolt by the peasants of Maharashtra primarily directed against which group of people?
Ans > Marwari and Gujarati moneylenders
- The Ryotwari Crisis: Under the Ryotwari settlement in the Bombay Deccan, the British government collected land revenue directly from the peasants (ryots). The heavily excessive tax rates, combined with a severe succession of bad harvests, forced the peasants into a massive, inescapable cycle of debt just to pay their taxes.
- The Cotton Boom Collapse: The crisis was massively exacerbated by the end of the American Civil War in 1864. During the war, Indian cotton prices had artificially skyrocketed, but the sudden crash left Deccan farmers with massively diminished incomes, unable to repay the loans they had aggressively taken during the boom years.
- The Target of the Riots: The peasants’ absolute fury was directed not initially at the British state, but directly at the outside Marwari and Gujarati moneylenders (sahukars). These moneylenders utilized complex, fraudulent accounting, charged extortionate interest rates, and aggressively used the British civil courts to seize the ancestral lands of defaulting peasants.
- Nature of the Uprising: The riots, which began in the Poona and Ahmednagar districts in 1875, were highly specific in their violence. The peasants systematically attacked the houses and shops of the moneylenders with the sole, explicit objective of seizing and burning the hated debt bonds (khatas), decrees, and mortgage deeds that bound them to ruin.
- Government Response: The British administration rapidly deployed the military to crush the riots. However, recognizing the severe agrarian distress, they appointed the Deccan Riots Commission, which eventually led to the passing of the Deccan Agriculturists’ Relief Act of 1879, offering massive restrictions on the sale of peasant land to non-agriculturist moneylenders.
π Peasant Movements β’ Kisan Sabhas
Q.30) The Awadh Kisan Sabha, formed in 1920 to protest against exorbitant rents and illegal cesses (bedakhli), was famously led by which charismatic sanyasi?
Ans > Baba Ramchandra
- The Awadh Agrarian Crisis: Following World War I, the peasants of the Awadh region (United Provinces) were subjected to massive economic exploitation by the powerful Taluqdars and landlords. They faced highly exorbitant rents, arbitrary illegal cesses (nazrana), forced unpaid labor (begar), and the constant, terrifying threat of summary eviction (bedakhli) from their tenant lands.
- The Rise of a Charismatic Leader: The massive peasant discontent found a brilliant, unconventional leader in Baba Ramchandra. He was a wandering sanyasi who had previously worked as a heavily exploited indentured laborer in Fiji, giving him deep empathy for the plight of the marginalized masses.
- Unique Mobilization Tactics: Baba Ramchandra was a master of grassroots mobilization. He brilliantly utilized traditional Hindu religious texts, specifically reciting the Ramcharitmanas of Tulsidas, to deeply connect with the illiterate peasantry, organizing them into massive, unified Kisan Sabhas (Peasant Associations) across the villages.
- Formation of the Awadh Kisan Sabha: In October 1920, to unify the fragmented local groups, the massive Awadh Kisan Sabha was formally established in Pratapgarh. Under Baba Ramchandra’s leadership, the Sabha organized massive social boycotts of the landlords, refusing to provide them with essential services like barbers and washermen (Nai-Dhobi bandh).
- Integration with the National Movement: Recognizing the massive political potential of the peasant uprising, national leaders intervened. Baba Ramchandra actively sought the help of Jawaharlal Nehru and Gauri Shankar Mishra, effectively merging the massive rural agrarian grievances of Awadh with Gandhi’s broader, nationwide Non-Cooperation Movement.
π Quick Summary β Modern History Set 72
- Regulating Act 1773: Made Warren Hastings the first Governor-General of Bengal.
- Charter Act 1853: Introduced open competition for civil servant recruitment.
- First Viceroy: Lord Canning assumed the title after the 1857 Revolt.
- Portfolio System: Formally recognized by the Indian Councils Act 1861.
- Provincial Dyarchy: Introduced by the Government of India Act 1919 (Mont-Ford Reforms).
- Maker of Modern India: Lord Dalhousie introduced railways and telegraphs.
- 1871 Census: First non-synchronous census was organized under Lord Mayo.
- Vernacular Press Act: Enacted by Lord Lytton in 1878 to suppress local media.
- INC Foundation: Formed in 1885 during the tenure of Viceroy Lord Dufferin.
- Partition of Bengal: Executed by Lord Curzon in 1905, triggering Swadeshi Movement.
- Annulment of Partition: Announced at the 1911 Delhi Durbar under Lord Hardinge II.
- Jallianwala Bagh: Occurred during the viceroyalty of Lord Chelmsford in 1919.
- Chauri Chaura: Incident under Lord Reading (1922) led to NCM suspension.
- Purna Swaraj: Adopted at Lahore (1929) during Lord Irwin’s viceroyalty.
- Communal Award: Announced in 1932 during Lord Willingdon’s tenure.
- Quit India Movement: Launched in 1942 under Viceroy Lord Linlithgow.
- Cabinet Mission: Arrived in 1946 under the viceroyalty of Lord Wavell.
- Indian Renaissance: Raja Rammohan Roy founded Brahmo Samaj & abolished Sati.
- Mirat-ul-Akbar: Influential Persian newspaper published by Raja Rammohan Roy.
- Amrita Bazar Patrika: Founded by Sisir Kumar & Motilal Ghosh; turned English overnight to evade gag laws.
- Kesari & Mahratta: Newspapers used by Bal Gangadhar Tilak for mass awakening.
- Al Hilal: Urdu weekly started by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad in 1912.
- Aligarh Movement: Sir Syed Ahmed Khan founded the MAO College (later AMU) in 1875.
- Servants of India Society: Founded by Gopal Krishna Gokhale in 1905.
- Indian Association: Pre-Congress organization led by Surendranath Banerjea & Anand Mohan Bose.
- Indigo Revolt: Initiated by Digambar & Bishnucharan Biswas in Nadia district.
- Nil Darpan: Play by Dinabandhu Mitra exposing indigo planter atrocities.
- Pabna Agrarian Leagues: Localized rent strikes in Yusufshahi Pargana, Bengal.
- Deccan Riots: Directed against Marwari and Gujarati moneylenders in 1875.
- Awadh Kisan Sabha: Peasant movement led by sanyasi Baba Ramchandra in 1920.
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