Modern History Set 115
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π Indian National Movement β’ Gandhi Era
Q.1) After spending over two decades fighting against racial discrimination in South Africa, Mahatma Gandhi returned to India permanently on which date?
Ans > January 9, 1915
- Return from South Africa: Mahatma Gandhi arrived at Apollo Bunder in Bombay (now Mumbai) on January 9, 1915, permanently returning from South Africa. He had spent 21 crucial years there fighting racial segregation and honing his unique weapon of Satyagraha, heavily supported by the Natal Indian Congress and communities in Tolstoy Farm.
- Gokhale’s Mentorship: Upon his historic arrival, he was warmly welcomed by prominent Indian leaders, most notably Gopal Krishna Gokhale. Gokhale astutely advised Gandhi to spend his first year simply touring the vast Indian subcontinent to deeply understand the diverse land and its people before actively entering the turbulent political arena.
- Pravasi Bharatiya Divas: To formally honor this momentous return and recognize the massive contributions of the overseas Indian diaspora to India’s development, the Government of India officially established Pravasi Bharatiya Divas (Non-Resident Indian Day) in 2003, traditionally celebrated biennially on January 9.
π Indian National Movement β’ Satyagraha
Q.2) Mahatma Gandhiβs first major civil disobedience movement in India, organized to protect indigo cultivators, was the Champaran Satyagraha. In which year did it take place?
Ans > 1917
- The Tinkathia System: In the Champaran district of Bihar, European planters forced desperate local farmers to cultivate indigo on exactly 3/20th of their total land holdings. This deeply exploitative system was known as the Tinkathia system, ruining the soil and leaving farmers destitute.
- Gandhi’s Intervention: Persuaded by local farmer Rajkumar Shukla during the 1916 Lucknow Congress session, Gandhi visited Champaran in 1917. Accompanied by stalwarts like Dr. Rajendra Prasad, J.B. Kripalani, and Mazhar-ul-Haq, he meticulously documented the severe grievances of thousands of peasants.
- First Civil Disobedience: When ordered by the District Magistrate to leave immediately, Gandhi peacefully refused and offered to face the penalty. This marked the very first successful use of civil disobedience in India, ultimately forcing the government to abolish the system and grant 25% compensation to the farmers.
π Indian National Movement β’ Labor Strikes
Q.3) During the Ahmedabad Mill Strike of 1918, Mahatma Gandhi undertook his first hunger strike in India. He supported the workers’ demand for a plague bonus hike of what percentage?
Ans > 35%
- The Plague Bonus Dispute: Following a devastating plague outbreak and extreme wartime inflation, Ahmedabad’s textile mill owners arbitrarily decided to withdraw the previously granted ‘plague bonus’. Workers fiercely demanded a 50% cost-of-living increase, while the owners adamantly refused to offer anything more than 20%.
- First Fast Unto Death: Gandhi studied the industry’s finances and concluded that a 35% wage hike was entirely just. When the mill owners initiated a lockout, Gandhi led a peaceful strike. To boost the flagging morale of the starving workers, Gandhi undertook his very first “fast unto death” in India.
- Successful Resolution: Gandhi’s fast exerted immense moral pressure on the mill owners, particularly his friend Ambalal Sarabhai. Crucially supported by Ambalal’s sister, Anusuya Sarabhai, a settlement was quickly reached granting the exact 35% hike. This monumental success led to the formation of the highly influential Ahmedabad Textile Labour Association.
π British Legislation β’ Repressive Acts
Q.4) The draconian Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act, allowing the British to hold suspects without trial, was passed in 1919. It is popularly known as what?
Ans > The Rowlatt Act
- The Rowlatt Committee: Officially enacted as the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act of 1919, it was based entirely on the heavily criticized recommendations of the Sedition Committee. This committee was chaired by Sir Sidney Rowlatt, an English judge, aiming to permanently replace the expiring wartime Defence of India Act of 1915.
- Draconian Provisions: The act notoriously allowed the colonial government to completely bypass the standard judicial process. It granted them immense power to heavily restrict freedom of the press and arbitrarily arrest any individual suspected of treason, detaining them without trial for up to two years without the right of habeas corpus.
- Nationwide Outrage: The horrific suspension of basic civil liberties was perfectly summarized by the popular Indian slogan: “No Dalil, No Vakil, No Appeal” (No arguments, no lawyer, no appeal). It immediately triggered Gandhi to launch the Rowlatt Satyagraha, marking the very first truly nationwide mass strike against British rule.
π Indian National Movement β’ Historical Events
Q.5) The Jallianwala Bagh massacre, a pivotal event that shifted the course of the Indian freedom struggle, occurred on which date?
Ans > April 13, 1919
- Baisakhi Day Gathering: On April 13, 1919, a massive, entirely peaceful crowd of men, women, and children gathered at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar. They were there both to celebrate the vibrant spring festival of Baisakhi and to peacefully protest the arbitrary, secret arrest of prominent local nationalist leaders Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr. Satyapal under the draconian Rowlatt Act.
- General Dyer’s Brutality: Without issuing any prior warning to disperse, Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer ruthlessly blocked the only narrow exit to the enclosed ground. He coldly ordered his Gurkha and Baloch troops to fire continuously into the densest parts of the terrified crowd until their ammunition was completely exhausted, firing exactly 1,650 rounds.
- National Trauma: Official figures stated nearly 400 died, though Indian estimates put the toll well over 1,000. This unparalleled atrocity deeply shocked the entire nation. In profound sheer disgust, Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore instantly renounced his British knighthood, and Mahatma Gandhi returned his prized Kaiser-i-Hind medal.
π Indian National Movement β’ Khilafat
Q.6) To protest the unjust treatment of the Ottoman Empire (Turkey) after World War I, the All India Khilafat Committee was formed in 1919 in which city?
Ans > Bombay
- Post-WWI Grievances: Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I, the harsh Treaty of Sèvres threatened to entirely dismantle the empire and strip the Turkish Sultan of his immense religious authority as the Caliph (Khalifa), the spiritual leader of Sunni Muslims worldwide. This caused massive unrest among Indian Muslims.
- Formation in Bombay: To fiercely protest this perceived British betrayal and passionately advocate for the preservation of the Caliphate, the All India Khilafat Committee was formally established in Bombay in March 1919. It was powerfully led by dynamic figures including the Ali brothers (Shaukat Ali and Muhammad Ali), Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan, and Hasrat Mohani.
- Strategic Hindu-Muslim Unity: Mahatma Gandhi astutely recognized the Khilafat issue as an unprecedented, golden opportunity to forge unbreakable Hindu-Muslim unity against British imperialism. He was elected president of the All India Khilafat Conference in Delhi and successfully merged their demands directly into his upcoming Non-Cooperation Movement.
π Indian National Congress β’ Sessions
Q.7) The Indian National Congress officially endorsed the Non-Cooperation Movement at its annual session in December 1920 held in which city?
Ans > Nagpur
- The Historic Endorsement: While the controversial idea of non-cooperation was initially approved during a highly tense special session in Calcutta in September 1920, it was formally, enthusiastically, and unanimously endorsed at the regular annual session held in Nagpur in December 1920, marking a massive paradigm shift in Indian politics.
- C.R. Das’s Reversal: Remarkably, C.R. Das, who had vehemently opposed the movement’s boycott of legislative councils just months earlier in Calcutta, changed his stance entirely and actually moved the main resolution supporting Non-Cooperation himself at the Nagpur session.
- Restructuring the Congress: The Nagpur session was fundamentally transformative. Gandhi completely rewrote the Congress constitution, establishing highly organized Provincial Congress Committees strictly on a linguistic basis. He also drastically reduced the membership fee to a mere four annas to rapidly transform the Congress from an elite debating club into a genuine, grassroots mass organization.
π Indian National Movement β’ Mass Struggle
Q.8) Mahatma Gandhi abruptly suspended the Non-Cooperation Movement following a violent clash between a mob and the police at Chauri Chaura. On what date did this incident occur?
Ans > February 5, 1922
- The Spark of Violence: On February 5, 1922, in the small town of Chauri Chaura located in the Gorakhpur district of the United Provinces (modern-day Uttar Pradesh), a large, initially peaceful procession of farmers protesting highly inflated meat prices and liquor sales was suddenly fired upon by the local British police.
- The Deadly Retaliation: Outraged by the unprovoked firing, the massive crowd quickly turned incredibly violent. They chased the fleeing policemen back to their station, heavily barricaded the doors from the outside, and set the entire building ablaze, resulting in the brutal burning and death of exactly 22 policemen.
- The Bardoli Resolution: Deeply disturbed by this horrific violence, Gandhi firmly concluded that the Indian masses were not yet adequately trained in the strict discipline of Ahimsa (non-violence). He unilaterally passed the Bardoli resolution, abruptly calling off the entire Non-Cooperation Movement, a decision that deeply shocked and angered prominent leaders like Nehru, Bose, and C.R. Das.
π Political Parties β’ Freedom Struggle
Q.9) Disillusioned by the sudden withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement, C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru formed which political party in January 1923?
Ans > The Swaraj Party
- The Great Split of 1922: Following the abrupt suspension of the Non-Cooperation Movement, a massive ideological split occurred at the December 1922 Gaya Session of the Indian National Congress. The faction known as the “Pro-Changers” clashed heavily with orthodox Gandhians known as the “No-Changers” (like Rajendra Prasad and C. Rajagopalachari).
- Formation and Leadership: Defeated at the Gaya session, C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru immediately resigned from their respective Congress posts and formally established the Congress-Khilafat Swarajya Party (commonly known as the Swaraj Party) on January 1, 1923, with Das as President and Nehru as the primary Secretary.
- Council Entry Strategy: Unlike Gandhi’s strategy of total boycott, the Swarajists firmly believed in actively entering the British legislative councils. Their stated primary objective was to “wreck the legislature from within,” deliberately creating political deadlocks to completely expose the sham of the constitutional reforms introduced by the Government of India Act 1919.
π British India β’ Commissions
Q.10) The Simon Commission, an all-white statutory commission appointed to review the constitutional progress in India, arrived in the country in which year?
Ans > 1928
- Premature Appointment: Officially known as the Indian Statutory Commission, it was appointed by the British Conservative government in November 1927, exactly two years earlier than mandated by the 1919 Act. It was chaired by Sir John Simon and crucially included a future British Prime Minister, Clement Attlee, among its seven members.
- The “All-White” Insult: The commission arrived in Bombay on February 3, 1928. It sparked immediate, unprecedented nationwide outrage strictly because all seven of its appointed members were British. Indians viewed this total exclusion as a massive racist insult, fundamentally denying their basic right to determine their own constitutional future.
- Nationwide Boycott and Tragedy: The commission was aggressively greeted everywhere with massive strikes, closed shops, and thousands waving black flags while continuously chanting “Simon Go Back!”. During one such massive, peaceful anti-Simon protest in Lahore, the revered leader Lala Lajpat Rai was brutally beaten during a police lathi charge and tragically died weeks later from his severe injuries.
π Constitutional History β’ Indian Response
Q.11) The Nehru Report, the first major Indian effort to draft a constitutional framework, was published in which year?
Ans > 1928
- Answering Birkenhead’s Challenge: In response to the massive protests against the all-white Simon Commission, the deeply arrogant Secretary of State for India, Lord Birkenhead, publicly challenged Indian leaders to draft a universally accepted constitution themselves. Accepting this, an All Parties Conference appointed a highly specialized committee chaired by Motilal Nehru.
- Key Constitutional Demands: Published in August 1928, the Nehru Report demanded full Dominion Status for India. It strongly rejected the divisive concept of separate electorates, proposing instead joint electorates with strictly reserved seats for minorities. It also proposed the creation of linguistic provinces and a completely secular state with no state religion.
- Pioneering Fundamental Rights: Crucially, the incredibly progressive report outlined 19 fundamental rights, which remarkably included the absolute right to universal adult suffrage and equal rights for women. However, the report was ultimately rejected by M.A. Jinnah (who countered with his famous ’14 Points’) and opposed by younger Congress leaders demanding complete independence.
π Indian National Congress β’ Resolutions
Q.12) The historic ‘Purna Swaraj’ (Complete Independence) resolution was passed during the 1929 session of the Indian National Congress. Where was this session held?
Ans > Lahore
- The Shift in Objective: Presided over by a young and highly dynamic Jawaharlal Nehru, the monumental Lahore session of the INC in December 1929 marked a massive turning point. Frustrated by British delays, the Congress officially discarded the moderate demand for Dominion Status and formally declared ‘Purna Swaraj’ (Complete Independence) as its singular, non-negotiable goal.
- Authorizing Civil Disobedience: The session took highly aggressive political steps. It officially announced a total boycott of the upcoming First Round Table Conference in London. Furthermore, it explicitly authorized the Congress Working Committee to launch a massive, nationwide program of Civil Disobedience, explicitly including the organized non-payment of heavy colonial taxes.
- The First Independence Day: In a deeply symbolic and highly emotional act, at midnight on December 31, 1929, the newly adopted tricolor flag of India was proudly hoisted on the freezing banks of the Ravi river. The Congress officially designated January 26, 1930, as the first ‘Independence Day’, heavily inspiring the date chosen years later to formally adopt the Indian Constitution in 1950.
π Indian National Movement β’ Civil Disobedience
Q.13) Mahatma Gandhi launched the Civil Disobedience Movement by beginning his historic Dandi March to break the salt law. On what exact date did the march commence?
Ans > March 12, 1930
- The Salt Satyagraha: Following the Lahore resolution, Gandhi strategically chose to attack the highly regressive British salt tax. Salt was a basic, absolute necessity for every Indian, regardless of caste or religion, making the tax an incredibly cruel burden on the poorest masses. The march began from his Sabarmati Ashram in Ahmedabad on March 12, 1930.
- The 240-Mile Journey: Accompanied by 78 carefully selected and highly disciplined followers representing various regions of India, Gandhi undertook a grueling 240-mile journey on foot. The massive march drew unprecedented international media attention and mobilized thousands of rural villagers along the highly publicized route to the coastal village of Dandi in Gujarat.
- Breaking the Law: Reaching the coast on April 5, Gandhi formally initiated the nationwide Civil Disobedience Movement on the morning of April 6, 1930. He technically and deliberately broke the imperial law by simply picking up a small lump of natural salt from the mudflats, sparking a massive, unprecedented wave of illegal salt making and law defiance across the entire subcontinent.
π Constitutional Reforms β’ Round Table
Q.14) To discuss future constitutional reforms in India based on the Simon Commission report, the British government convened the First Round Table Conference in London in which year?
Ans > 1930
- First Meeting as Equals: The First Round Table Conference was officially convened between November 1930 and January 1931 in London. It was a massive historical milestone as it was the very first time that British officials and Indian political representatives met on a theoretically equal footing to formally discuss the future constitutional framework of the subcontinent.
- Congress Boycott: The conference was officially opened by King George V and chaired by Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald. However, the Indian National Congress, which was overwhelmingly the largest political party in India, completely boycotted the massive event as they were aggressively leading the nationwide Civil Disobedience Movement, and most of their top leaders were in jail.
- Diverse Attendance: Despite the glaring absence of the Congress, the conference was heavily attended by a wide array of other groups. This included the Muslim League (led by Jinnah), the Hindu Mahasabha, various Liberal leaders, representatives of the Depressed Classes (notably Dr. B.R. Ambedkar), and numerous powerful Princes representing the Indian Princely States.
π Indian National Movement β’ Pacts
Q.15) The Civil Disobedience Movement was temporarily suspended following a landmark agreement between Mahatma Gandhi and the Viceroy. On what date was the Gandhi-Irwin Pact signed?
Ans > March 5, 1931
- The Delhi Negotiations: Realizing that any constitutional reform would be entirely meaningless without the participation of the Congress, the British government released Gandhi and other leaders in early 1931. This led to highly intense, weeks-long direct negotiations between Mahatma Gandhi and the Viceroy, Lord Irwin, resulting in the Delhi Pact on March 5, 1931.
- Key Congress Concessions: Under the strict terms of this highly controversial agreement, the Indian National Congress agreed to completely suspend the massive, ongoing Civil Disobedience Movement. Furthermore, they officially agreed to participate in the upcoming Second Round Table Conference in London to discuss the proposed federal structure.
- British Concessions: In return, the colonial government agreed to immediately withdraw all repressive ordinances and release all political prisoners who were not convicted of violent crimes. Crucially, they also permitted the peaceful picketing of liquor and foreign cloth shops and allowed extremely poor coastal villagers to legally manufacture salt for their own domestic consumption.
π Indian National Congress β’ Sessions
Q.16) At the 1931 Karachi session, the Congress passed landmark resolutions on Fundamental Rights and the National Economic Programme. Who presided over this session?
Ans > Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
- A Somber Background: The deeply emotional Karachi Session of 1931 was presided over by the “Iron Man of India,” Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel. It was held merely days after the highly controversial execution of the young revolutionaries Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru, leading to massive black-flag protests against Gandhi upon his arrival.
- Defining Swaraj for the Masses: Despite the intense anger, the session is historically monumental. For the very first time, the Congress explicitly defined what ‘Swaraj’ (Independence) would actually mean for the common masses, shifting focus from purely political freedom to deeply socio-economic liberation.
- Historic Resolutions: The session unanimously passed two highly progressive resolutions largely drafted by Jawaharlal Nehru. The Fundamental Rights resolution guaranteed basic civil liberties, secularism, and universal adult franchise. The National Economic Programme heavily advocated for massive state control over key strategic industries, better conditions for workers, and substantial debt relief for impoverished farmers.
π British Policies β’ Divide & Rule
Q.17) In August 1932, the highly controversial ‘Communal Award’, granting separate electorates to the depressed classes, was announced by which British Prime Minister?
Ans > Ramsay MacDonald
- The Award’s Origins: Following the utter failure of the Second Round Table Conference to reach any consensus on minority representation, British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald officially announced the Communal Award on August 16, 1932. It was heavily based on the findings of the British-led Indian Franchise Committee (the Lothian Committee).
- Expanding Separate Electorates: The highly divisive award not only continued separate electorates for Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, and Europeans, but it took the unprecedented step of officially recognizing the ‘Depressed Classes’ (Dalits) as a distinct political minority, granting them their own separate electorates away from the general Hindu fold.
- Gandhi’s Fierce Opposition: Mahatma Gandhi, then imprisoned in the Yerwada Central Jail, viewed this as a highly dangerous imperialist ploy to permanently fracture and divide Hindu society. He immediately commenced a grueling “fast unto death” to aggressively protest the political separation of the depressed classes, causing panic across the nation.
π Indian National Movement β’ Agreements
Q.18) In protest against the Communal Award, Gandhi undertook a fast unto death. This resulted in the Poona Pact of 1932, signed primarily between Gandhi’s supporters and whom?
Ans > Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
- Pressure to Save Gandhi: As Mahatma Gandhi’s health deteriorated rapidly during his “fast unto death” in Yerwada Jail, immense national pressure was placed on Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, the primary leader of the Depressed Classes who had fiercely advocated for the separate electorates granted by the Communal Award.
- The Compromise Reached: After days of highly intense negotiations, a major compromise known as the Poona Pact was successfully reached on September 24, 1932. It was officially signed by Dr. Ambedkar on behalf of the Depressed Classes, and by Madan Mohan Malaviya representing the caste Hindu leaders on behalf of Gandhi.
- Reservation Over Separation: The pact completely abandoned the divisive idea of separate electorates. Instead, it guaranteed a significantly higher number of reserved seats for the Depressed Classes within the general Hindu electorate, raising the seats in provincial legislatures from 71 (under the British Award) to a massive 147, and securing 18% of seats in the Central Legislature.
π Constitutional History β’ Acts
Q.19) The Government of India Act 1935 proposed sweeping structural changes. It abolished Dyarchy in the provinces and replaced it with what?
Ans > Provincial Autonomy
- The Longest British Act: The Government of India Act 1935 was an incredibly massive piece of legislation, the longest Act of the British Parliament at that time. It was based heavily on the findings of the Simon Commission, discussions at the Round Table Conferences, and the subsequent White Paper of 1933.
- End of Provincial Dyarchy: The most significant practical change was the complete abolition of the complex, highly flawed system of ‘Dyarchy’ (dual rule) in the provinces introduced in 1919. It replaced it with ‘Provincial Autonomy’, meaning provincial governments were now directly responsible to the elected provincial legislatures, rather than entirely controlled by British Governors.
- Federal Structure Proposal: The Act also proposed a highly complex All India Federation consisting of British Indian provinces and Princely States. However, this federation never materialized because the Princely States completely refused to join. The Act also crucially established the Reserve Bank of India, the Federal Court (precursor to the Supreme Court), and formally separated Burma from India.
π Indian National Congress β’ Internal Politics
Q.20) At the highly contested Tripuri Congress session in 1939, Subhas Chandra Bose was re-elected as President by defeating which candidate officially endorsed by Mahatma Gandhi?
Ans > Pattabhi Sitaramayya
- The 1939 Presidential Election: The 52nd session of the INC held in Tripuri (near Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh) witnessed an unprecedented, highly bitter internal election. The incumbent, Subhas Chandra Bose, representing the radical left-wing, decided to run for re-election against the wishes of the dominant moderate faction.
- Gandhi’s Personal Stake: Mahatma Gandhi fiercely opposed Bose’s militant approach and officially backed Dr. Pattabhi Sitaramayya for the presidency. However, Bose commanded massive support among the younger delegates and decisively defeated Sitaramayya by securing 1,580 votes to 1,377.
- The Tripuri Crisis: Following the stunning result, Gandhi publicly declared that Sitaramayya’s defeat was his own personal defeat. This caused massive friction. The entire Congress Working Committee (except Sarat Bose) resigned, making it completely impossible for Bose to effectively function as President without Gandhi’s cooperation, ultimately forcing his resignation in April 1939.
π Political Parties β’ Subhas Chandra Bose
Q.21) Due to severe ideological differences with the Congress high command and Mahatma Gandhi, Subhas Chandra Bose resigned as INC President in 1939 and founded which new party?
Ans > The Forward Bloc
- Post-Resignation Strategy: After being practically forced to resign as Congress President in April 1939 due to intense non-cooperation from the Gandhi-dominated Working Committee, Subhas Chandra Bose immediately sought to organize the scattered radical elements. He officially formed the All India Forward Bloc on May 3, 1939.
- A Left-Wing Consolidation: Initially, the Forward Bloc did not intend to break away entirely but functioned as a highly organized left-wing faction within the broader Congress structure. Its primary aim was to heavily consolidate all radical, anti-imperialist, and socialist forces to prepare for an uncompromising, immediate mass struggle against the British.
- Disciplinary Action: Bose’s highly aggressive, independent actions and his call for a nationwide protest against an AICC resolution led to severe disciplinary action. In August 1939, the Congress high command expelled him, stripping him of his position as President of the Bengal Provincial Congress Committee and banning him from holding any elective office for three full years.
π British Proposals β’ WW2 Era
Q.22) To secure Indian cooperation during World War II, Viceroy Lord Linlithgow issued a proposal promising Dominion Status after the war. This 1940 proposal is known as what?
Ans > The August Offer
- Desperation During WW2: Following the shocking fall of France and the massive threat of Nazi Germany in 1940, the British government desperately needed absolute Indian cooperation in the war effort. In response, Viceroy Lord Linlithgow issued a major statement on August 8, 1940, famously known as the August Offer.
- Key Concessions Offered: For the very first time, the British officially offered Dominion Status as the explicit objective for India, to be granted after the war concluded. It also promised the immediate expansion of the Viceroy’s Executive Council to include a majority of Indians and recognized the inherent right of Indians to frame their own constitution.
- Outright Rejection: The Indian National Congress, having firmly demanded ‘Purna Swaraj’ (Complete Independence) back in 1929, outright rejected the offer. Jawaharlal Nehru famously dismissed the belated promise of Dominion Status as being “dead as a doornail.” The Muslim League also rejected it because it did not explicitly guarantee a separate Pakistan.
π Indian National Movement β’ Satyagraha
Q.23) Rejecting the August Offer, Mahatma Gandhi launched the ‘Individual Satyagraha’ in 1940 to affirm the right to free speech. Who was chosen as the very first Satyagrahi?
Ans > Acharya Vinoba Bhave
- A Symbolic Protest Strategy: To powerfully protest India’s forced participation in World War II without sparking widespread violence or completely crippling the British war effort against fascism, Mahatma Gandhi initiated the ‘Individual Satyagraha’ in October 1940. It was a highly controlled, deeply symbolic movement focused primarily on affirming the fundamental right to free speech.
- The Chosen Few: Rather than a mass uprising, Satyagrahis were carefully and personally selected by Gandhi himself. Their specific task was to publicly demand freedom of speech by deliberately delivering anti-war speeches in public spaces and courting immediate arrest by the colonial authorities. The movement was also popularly termed “Delhi Chalo”.
- The First Satyagrahis: The highly revered spiritual leader and social reformer Acharya Vinoba Bhave was given the massive honor of being chosen as the very first Satyagrahi. He was quickly followed by Jawaharlal Nehru as the second, and Brahma Datt as the third. By 1941, over 25,000 such individuals had deliberately courted arrest across the country.
π British Missions β’ Negotiations
Q.24) In March 1942, the British government dispatched a mission to India to negotiate a political settlement and secure war support. What was this mission called?
Ans > The Cripps Mission
- The Threat of Invasion: By early 1942, the rapid and terrifying advance of the Japanese forces through Southeast Asia (capturing Singapore and Rangoon) placed India under immediate threat of invasion. Under intense pressure from allies like the US and China to secure Indian backing, the British sent a mission headed by Sir Stafford Cripps, a left-wing Labourite.
- The Proposals Offered: The Cripps Mission proposed granting India full Dominion status with the radical right to actually secede from the British Commonwealth. It also proposed setting up a Constituent Assembly elected by provincial assemblies after the war. However, it dangerously allowed any province unwilling to join the new dominion to form its own separate agreement.
- A Post-Dated Cheque: The proposals were unanimously rejected by all major parties. The Congress rejected it because it offered only future promises rather than immediate independence, and allowed provinces the right to secede (hinting at partition). Mahatma Gandhi famously summarized the entire offer as a worthless “post-dated cheque on a crashing bank.”
π Indian National Movement β’ Final Phase
Q.25) Following the failure of the Cripps Mission, the historic “Quit India” resolution was passed by the All India Congress Committee on which date?
Ans > August 8, 1942
- The Gowalia Tank Resolution: Frustrated by British intransigence and fearing a Japanese invasion, the All India Congress Committee met at the Gowalia Tank Maidan in Bombay. On August 8, 1942, they passed the historic “Quit India” resolution, demanding an immediate end to British rule and sanctioning a massive, non-violent mass struggle.
- The “Do or Die” Call: It was during this monumental session that Mahatma Gandhi delivered his most famous, electrifying speech, declaring, “Here is a mantra, a short one, that I give you… The mantra is: ‘Do or Die’ (Karo Ya Maro). We shall either free India or die in the attempt.” The slogan was originally coined by Yusuf Meherally.
- Operation Zero Hour: Anticipating the massive uprising, the British colonial government launched ‘Operation Zero Hour’ before dawn on August 9. They ruthlessly arrested Gandhi and the entire top Congress leadership, whisking them away to unknown prisons. This resulted in a massive, completely leaderless, spontaneous national uprising known as the August Kranti.
π Armed Struggle β’ INA
Q.26) The Indian National Army (INA), aiming to liberate India with Japanese assistance, was originally conceptualized and formed in 1942 by which former British Indian Army officer?
Ans > Captain Mohan Singh
- The First INA Formation: While famously associated with Subhas Chandra Bose, the Indian National Army (INA) was originally conceptualized in Malaya in 1942. It was formed by Captain Mohan Singh, an officer in the British Indian Army who had surrendered to the Japanese, with the crucial assistance of Japanese intelligence officer Major Iwaichi Fujiwara.
- Prisoners of War: The initial force was heavily comprised of thousands of Indian Prisoners of War (POWs) captured by the Japanese during the devastating Fall of Singapore. However, severe disagreements quickly arose between Mohan Singh and the Japanese command over the size and actual role of the army, leading to its dissolution by December 1942.
- Revival by Netaji: The movement was brilliantly revived when Subhas Chandra Bose arrived in Singapore in 1943. He completely reorganized it into the Azad Hind Fauj, vastly expanding its ranks with civilian volunteers from Southeast Asia, and famously establishing the Rani of Jhansi regiment, the very first all-female combat unit in modern Asia.
π Independence Negotiations β’ Pre-Partition
Q.27) To break the political deadlock and discuss the transfer of power, British Prime Minister Clement Attlee sent the Cabinet Mission to India in which year?
Ans > 1946
- The Post-War Reality: Following the end of World War II, the newly elected Labour government in Britain, led by Prime Minister Clement Attlee, recognized that holding onto India was no longer militarily or economically viable. To negotiate a peaceful transfer of power, he dispatched the high-level Cabinet Mission to India in March 1946.
- Mission Composition and Rejection of Pakistan: The mission consisted of three senior British cabinet members: Lord Pethick-Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps, and A.V. Alexander. After extensive talks, they explicitly rejected the Muslim League’s massive demand for a fully sovereign state of Pakistan, arguing it would be economically unviable and leave massive minority populations vulnerable.
- The Three-Tier Proposal: Instead of partition, the mission proposed a highly complex three-tier federal structure for a united India. It consisted of a weak central Union government (handling only defense, foreign affairs, and communications), powerful autonomous Provinces, and intermediate regional ‘Groups’ of provinces. It also laid the crucial groundwork for electing the Constituent Assembly.
π Partition History β’ Communal Violence
Q.28) Frustrated by the Cabinet Mission Plan’s rejection of an independent Pakistan, the Muslim League called for “Direct Action Day”. On what date was this observed?
Ans > August 16, 1946
- Withdrawal from the Plan: Although the Muslim League initially accepted the Cabinet Mission Plan, severe disagreements arose with the Congress over the interpretation of the ‘grouping’ clause and the formation of the Interim Government. Frustrated, Muhammad Ali Jinnah completely withdrew the League’s acceptance in late July 1946.
- The Call for Direct Action: Demanding a fully independent Pakistan through unconstitutional means, Jinnah dramatically announced August 16, 1946, as “Direct Action Day.” The stated goal was to paralyze the government machinery through mass strikes and rallies to prove the absolute impossibility of a united India.
- The Great Calcutta Killings: The day sparked an unprecedented, horrific outbreak of communal violence, starting in Bengal (which was under a Muslim League government led by H.S. Suhrawardy). Known as the Great Calcutta Killings, over 4,000 people were brutally slaughtered and 100,000 left completely homeless within 72 hours, pushing the subcontinent rapidly toward an inevitable, bloody partition.
π Independence & Partition β’ Lord Mountbatten
Q.29) The plan that formally proposed the partition of India into two independent dominions (India and Pakistan) is famously known as the Mountbatten Plan. On which date was it announced?
Ans > June 3, 1947
- The Inevitability of Partition: Lord Mountbatten arrived in India in March 1947 as the last Viceroy, specifically tasked with transferring power by June 1948. Quickly realizing that the intense communal violence and total political deadlock made a united India impossible, he accelerated the timeline drastically to prevent civil war.
- The June 3rd Plan: Formulated with the crucial assistance of V.P. Menon, the decisive Mountbatten Plan (also known as the June 3rd Plan or the Dickie Bird Plan) was formally announced on June 3, 1947. It explicitly proposed the partition of British India into two distinct, sovereign dominions: India and Pakistan.
- Mechanisms of Division: The plan dictated that the legislative assemblies of Punjab and Bengal would vote on partitioning their massive provinces. It established strict Boundary Commissions under Sir Cyril Radcliffe to aggressively demarcate the new borders. It also allowed the 565 Princely States the theoretical choice to accede to either new dominion.
π Independent India β’ Leadership
Q.30) Who holds the distinction of being the first and only Indian to hold the office of Governor-General of independent India (1948β1950)?
Ans > C. Rajagopalachari
- Succeeding Mountbatten: Chakravarti Rajagopalachari, popularly and affectionately known as Rajaji or C.R., holds a unique place in history. When Lord Mountbatten finally departed India in June 1948, Rajaji was appointed to succeed him, becoming the very first and only native Indian to hold the highest office of Governor-General.
- A Legacy of Leadership: Rajaji was an absolute stalwart of the freedom struggle, having previously served as the powerful Premier of the Madras Presidency (1937-1939). As Governor-General, he formally resided in the massive Viceroy’s House (now Rashtrapati Bhavan), guiding the newly independent nation through its highly turbulent early transition period.
- The Republic Transition: He held this monumental post until January 26, 1950, when the Constitution of India formally came into effect. At that moment, the colonial office of the Governor-General was permanently abolished, and Dr. Rajendra Prasad took over as the first President of the Republic. Rajaji was later awarded the inaugural Bharat Ratna in 1954.
π Quick Summary β Modern History Set 115
- Gandhi Returns: Mahatma Gandhi arrived permanently in India on Jan 9, 1915.
- First Satyagraha: Champaran Satyagraha against indigo planters took place in 1917.
- First Fast: Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918) secured a 35% wage hike for workers.
- Rowlatt Act: The 1919 draconian law allowed detention without trial.
- Jallianwala Bagh: Tragic massacre occurred in Amritsar on April 13, 1919.
- Khilafat Movement: Formed in Bombay (1919) to protest the treatment of Turkey.
- Non-Cooperation: Officially endorsed at the Nagpur Session in December 1920.
- Chauri Chaura: Incident on Feb 5, 1922 caused the halt of Non-Cooperation.
- Swaraj Party: Formed by C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru in 1923 for council entry.
- Simon Commission: The all-white commission arrived in India in 1928.
- Nehru Report: First Indian constitutional framework drafted in 1928.
- Purna Swaraj: Complete independence declared at the Lahore session in 1929.
- Dandi March: Salt Satyagraha began on March 12, 1930.
- Round Table: First conference held in London in 1930; boycotted by Congress.
- Gandhi-Irwin Pact: Signed on March 5, 1931, halting civil disobedience.
- Karachi Session (1931): Sardar Patel presided; passed Fundamental Rights resolutions.
- Communal Award: Announced by Ramsay MacDonald in 1932.
- Poona Pact: Signed between Gandhiβs side and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar in 1932.
- Govt of India Act 1935: Replaced Dyarchy with Provincial Autonomy.
- Tripuri Crisis: Subhas Bose defeated Pattabhi Sitaramayya for presidency in 1939.
- Forward Bloc: Founded by Subhas Chandra Bose after resigning in 1939.
- August Offer: 1940 proposal offering Dominion status; rejected.
- Individual Satyagraha: Vinoba Bhave chosen as first satyagrahi in 1940.
- Cripps Mission: Arrived in 1942, called a “post-dated cheque” by Gandhi.
- Quit India: Launched via historic resolution on August 8, 1942.
- INA Formation: Originally formed by Capt. Mohan Singh in 1942.
- Cabinet Mission: Arrived in 1946, proposed a loose federation.
- Direct Action Day: Muslim League called for action on August 16, 1946.
- Mountbatten Plan: June 3, 1947 plan proposing the partition of India.
- First Indian GG: C. Rajagopalachari became the only Indian Governor-General (1948).
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