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Modern History Set 95 | MROY Class

Modern History Set 95

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📌 Pre-Congress • Organizations

Q.1) The Zamindari Association, later known as the Landholders’ Society, was founded in 1838 to safeguard the interests of landlords. Who was its principal founder?

Ans > Dwarkanath Tagore
  • The Genesis of Organized Politics: The Zamindari Association, which later came to be known widely as the Landholders’ Society, was officially established in Calcutta in 1838. It is highly regarded by modern historians as the very first political association of modern India, marking the decisive beginning of organized political activity in the subcontinent.
  • Key Founders and Visionaries: The organization was principally founded by Dwarkanath Tagore, an immensely wealthy Bengali industrialist, intellectual, and grandfather of Rabindranath Tagore. He worked alongside other prominent figures like Radhakanta Deb and Prasanna Kumar Tagore to create a unified platform for the landed elite.
  • Core Objectives and Demands: The absolute primary objective of the society was to fiercely safeguard the economic, social, and legal interests of the landlords (zamindars). Specifically, they campaigned relentlessly to secure the continuation of Lord Cornwallis’s Permanent Settlement of 1793 and protect their vast estates from arbitrary British tax encroachments.
  • Methods of Agitation: Unlike later revolutionary groups, this society strictly utilized constitutional methods of agitation. They relied heavily on drafting formal petitions, sending legal appeals to the British Parliament, and establishing public meetings to formally voice their grievances to the colonial administration.
  • Historical Legacy: Although it primarily served a narrow, wealthy elite class, the Landholders’ Society set a monumental precedent. It established the formal machinery of modern political organizations in India, directly paving the way for broader, more inclusive nationalist organizations like the Indian National Congress in the subsequent decades.
📌 Pre-Congress • Organizations

Q.2) The British Indian Association was formed in 1851 by merging the Landholders’ Society and the Bengal British India Society. Who served as its first President?

Ans > Radhakanta Deb
  • Strategic Merger of Forces: The British Indian Association was formally established on October 29, 1851. It was created through a strategic merger of two existing organizations: the Landholders’ Society (representing the conservative zamindars) and the Bengal British India Society (representing the more progressive, Western-educated middle class).
  • Founding Leadership: Radhakanta Deb, a highly influential and conservative Hindu scholar and aristocrat, was unanimously elected as its very first President. Debendranath Tagore, a prominent philosopher and religious reformer, took on the crucial role of its first Secretary, managing its daily political operations.
  • Charter Act Petitions: The immediate catalyst for forming the association was the impending renewal of the East India Company’s charter in 1853. The association drafted massive, highly detailed petitions to the British Parliament demanding greater inclusion of Indians in the legislative process and a strict separation of the executive and judicial branches of government.
  • Legislative Achievements: Their rigorous constitutional agitation bore fruit. It directly led to a significant reform in the Charter Act of 1853, which mandated the addition of six new members to the Governor-General’s council specifically for legislative purposes, a small but vital step toward representative government.
  • Class Character: Despite its early successes, the British Indian Association remained highly exclusive in its character. Its high membership fees meant it was overwhelmingly dominated by wealthy landlords and aristocrats, which eventually led the younger, more radical middle class to form newer organizations like the Indian Association of Calcutta.
📌 Pre-Congress • Organizations

Q.3) In 1866, the East India Association was founded in London to discuss Indian questions and influence British public opinion. Who was its founder?

Ans > Dadabhai Naoroji
  • Global Advocacy for India: The East India Association was founded in London in 1866. This was a highly strategic move designed to bypass the colonial bureaucracy in India and directly address the seat of imperial power, presenting genuine Indian grievances to the British Parliament and the British public.
  • The Grand Old Man: It was founded by Dadabhai Naoroji, affectionately known as the “Grand Old Man of India.” He collaborated heavily with Indian students studying in London and sympathetic, retired British officials who recognized the deeply flawed nature of the East India Company’s remaining administrative structures.
  • The “Drain of Wealth” Theory: Dadabhai Naoroji brilliantly utilized the platform of the East India Association to articulate and popularize his groundbreaking “Drain of Wealth” theory. He provided massive statistical evidence proving that British colonial policies were systematically draining India’s wealth, leading to widespread famine and chronic poverty.
  • Expanding the Network: Realizing the need for a coordinated effort, the association did not remain confined to London. By 1869, Dadabhai Naoroji successfully established active branches of the East India Association in major Indian cities, including Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras, linking local leaders with international advocacy.
  • Superseding Earlier Groups: The formation of the East India Association effectively superseded the earlier London Indian Society (which had been founded by Naoroji and W.C. Bonnerjee). It became the premier organization for creating a strong, informed, pro-India lobbying group within the corridors of British political power.
📌 Pre-Congress • Organizations

Q.4) The Indian Association of Calcutta (1876) was the most important pre-Congress nationalist organization. It was founded by Anand Mohan Bose and whom?

Ans > Surendranath Banerjea
  • The Birth of Middle-Class Politics: The Indian Association of Calcutta was founded on July 26, 1876. It was created specifically because the younger, highly educated, and radical middle-class nationalists of Bengal were deeply dissatisfied with the deeply conservative and pro-landlord policies of the older British Indian Association.
  • The Founding Duo: It was co-founded by two towering figures of early Indian nationalism: Surendranath Banerjea (a brilliant orator and former ICS officer who was unjustly dismissed) and Anand Mohan Bose (a prominent lawyer and social reformer). Together, they sought to democratize the nationalist movement.
  • Core Ideological Aims: The association had highly ambitious, modern objectives. It aimed to create a robust body of public opinion on political questions across the country, fundamentally unify the diverse Indian races and peoples upon the basis of common political interests and aspirations, and promote Hindu-Muslim unity.
  • Major Political Campaigns: The association actively spearheaded massive, all-India agitations. Their most famous campaign was the intense protest against the British decision to reduce the maximum age limit for the Indian Civil Service (ICS) examination from 21 to 19, a move deliberately designed to keep Indians out of the administration.
  • The Precursor to Congress: They also violently opposed Lord Lytton’s draconian Arms Act and the Vernacular Press Act. Due to its truly pan-Indian vision and organized structure, the Indian Association of Calcutta is widely considered by historians to be the most important direct precursor to the Indian National Congress.
📌 Pre-Congress • Organizations

Q.5) The Madras Mahajana Sabha was established in 1884 to coordinate the activities of local associations. Which of the following leaders was NOT one of its founders?

Ans > K. Kamaraj
  • Consolidation of Southern Politics: The Madras Mahajana Sabha was formally established in May 1884. It emerged out of an urgent necessity to coordinate and unify the scattered political activities of various smaller, local associations operating throughout the vast Madras Presidency into a single, powerful regional voice.
  • The Founding Triumvirate: The Sabha was founded by three highly prominent intellectuals and journalists of the era: M. Viraraghavachariar, G. Subramania Iyer (who notably founded the famous English newspaper ‘The Hindu’), and P. Anandacharlu. They were instrumental in shaping early political discourse in South India.
  • The Incorrect Option: K. Kamaraj was certainly one of the most powerful and revered Congress leaders in Tamil Nadu history, known as the “Kingmaker” in post-independence India. However, he was born in 1903, decades after the Madras Mahajana Sabha was founded, and therefore could not have been one of its founders.
  • Early Political Demands: In its very first provincial conferences, the Sabha adopted highly progressive resolutions. They strongly demanded the immediate expansion of legislative councils to include native Indians, simultaneous civil service examinations in England and India, and the strict separation of the judiciary from the executive branch.
  • Integration into the National Movement: When the Indian National Congress was founded the very next year in 1885, the Madras Mahajana Sabha did not compete with it. Instead, it wholeheartedly supported the INC, effectively merging its regional aspirations with the broader, national anti-colonial struggle.
📌 Pre-Congress • Organizations

Q.6) The Bombay Presidency Association was formed in 1885. It was founded by Pherozeshah Mehta, K.T. Telang, and whom?

Ans > Badruddin Tyabji
  • Reaction to Colonial Oppression: The Bombay Presidency Association was founded in January 1885. Its formation was heavily catalyzed by massive public anger against the highly reactionary, oppressive policies of Viceroy Lord Lytton (such as the Vernacular Press Act) and the intense racial bitterness generated during the Ilbert Bill controversy.
  • The “Triumvirate” of Bombay: The organization was founded by three exceptional legal and political minds, popularly known as the “Triumvirate” or the “Three Stars” of Bombay’s public life: Pherozeshah Mehta (a Parsi), K.T. Telang (a Hindu), and Badruddin Tyabji (a Muslim), brilliantly reflecting secular unity.
  • Filling a Political Vacuum: The new association was created to fill a massive political vacuum in the region. It completely replaced the older Bombay Association (which had been founded by Dadabhai Naoroji back in 1852), as the older body had become defunct and highly disconnected from the modern political realities of the 1880s.
  • Hosting the First Congress: The Bombay Presidency Association played an absolutely pivotal, foundational role in the Indian independence movement by taking on the massive responsibility of organizing, funding, and hosting the very first, historic session of the Indian National Congress in Bombay in December 1885.
  • Championing Civil Rights: Throughout its existence, the association championed the cause of Indian political rights, fiercely demanding greater participation of Indians in the civil administration, protesting against heavy military expenditure, and advocating for the rapid industrialization of the Indian economy.
📌 INC • Formative Years

Q.7) The inaugural session of the Indian National Congress (INC) in 1885 was attended by how many delegates from across the country?

Ans > 72
  • The Historic Assembly: The highly historic, inaugural session of the Indian National Congress was held from December 28 to December 31, 1885. It marked the formal beginning of a structured, pan-Indian political movement that would eventually dismantle the British Empire in India.
  • A Last-Minute Venue Change: Originally, the grand session was scheduled to be held in Poona (Pune). However, due to a severe and sudden outbreak of cholera in the city, the venue was quickly shifted to the Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College in Bombay (Mumbai).
  • The 72 Pioneers: The session was attended by exactly 72 political workers, journalists, lawyers, and social reformers from across the vast subcontinent. Prominent attendees included titans of the early movement like Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozeshah Mehta, Dinshaw Wacha, and K.T. Telang.
  • Foundational Leadership: W.C. Bonnerjee, a highly prominent and respected Bengali lawyer, was elected to serve as the very first President of the INC. Allan Octavian (A.O.) Hume, a retired, sympathetic British civil servant, played an absolutely crucial, foundational role in organizing the event and acted as its General Secretary.
  • The Stated Core Objectives: The early Congress was not immediately demanding independence. Its stated core objectives were highly moderate: to promote personal intimacy and friendship among national workers, strictly formulate popular political demands, and thoroughly train the Indian public in the methods of constitutional, peaceful agitation.
📌 INC • Early Sessions

Q.8) The second session of the INC (1886) was held in Calcutta and saw a massive increase in delegates. Who presided over this session?

Ans > Dadabhai Naoroji
  • Shifting to the Imperial Capital: The second session of the INC was strategically held in Calcutta in 1886. Calcutta was not only the capital of British India at the time but also the absolute epicenter of the Bengali intellectual renaissance and highly radicalized middle-class political activity.
  • The President’s Legacy: Dadabhai Naoroji was elected as the President of this crucial session. This was the first of his three presidential terms (he would later preside in 1893 and 1906). His highly respected stature helped legitimize the nascent organization in the eyes of both Indians and the British.
  • A Massive Delegate Surge: The session demonstrated the astonishingly rapid politicization of the country. The number of delegates increased dramatically, soaring from a mere 72 in the 1885 Bombay session to a massive 436 delegates in Calcutta, drawn from widely diverse regions and professions.
  • Unification of Nationalist Forces: A highly historic event during this session was the complete merger of the Indian Association (led by Surendranath Banerjea) with the Indian National Congress. This merger unified the regional nationalist forces under one massive, pan-Indian umbrella organization.
  • Viceroy’s Shifting Attitude: Initially, the British administration tolerated the INC. Lord Dufferin, the Viceroy at the time, even hosted a grand garden party for the 1886 delegates. However, as the INC’s demands grew bolder, Dufferin quickly turned hostile, later famously mocking the Congress as representing only a “microscopic minority” of India.
📌 INC • Historical Milestones

Q.9) Who holds the distinction of being the first Muslim President of the Indian National Congress, presiding over the 1887 Madras session?

Ans > Badruddin Tyabji
  • Securing a Secular Foundation: The third session of the INC was held in Madras in 1887. This session was absolutely critical in firmly establishing the secular, all-inclusive, and non-sectarian foundational character of the early Indian nationalist movement.
  • A Pioneering Leader: Badruddin Tyabji, a highly prominent lawyer, progressive social reformer, and key political figure from Bombay, was elected as the President. By doing so, he earned the historic distinction of becoming the very first Muslim President of the Indian National Congress.
  • Countering Colonial Propaganda: The British colonial administration had been aggressively utilizing a “divide and rule” strategy, falsely propagating that the INC was a purely Hindu body that did not represent India’s minorities. Tyabji’s election brilliantly and effectively countered this malicious narrative.
  • A Call for Unity: In his powerful presidential address, Tyabji strongly appealed to Muslims across the subcontinent to not isolate themselves. He urged them to actively join hands with Hindus and other communities to fight for the broader political and economic advancement of the entire nation.
  • Formalizing the Organization: Aside from its symbolic importance, the 1887 Madras session was highly productive organizationally. It saw the formation of a dedicated committee tasked with formally framing a written constitution and strict operational rules for the Congress, establishing it as a permanent political entity.
📌 INC • Historical Milestones

Q.10) The Indian National Congress elected its first English President during its 1888 Allahabad session. Who was he?

Ans > George Yule
  • Defying Government Hostility: The 1888 session was held in Allahabad amidst incredibly intense hostility from British colonial authorities and strong opposition from loyalist figures like Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and Raja Shiva Prasad of Benares, who actively tried to derail the meeting.
  • The First European President: George Yule, a highly prominent Scottish merchant and leading figure in the business circles of Calcutta, was elected as the President. He became the very first English/European individual to ever preside over a session of the Indian National Congress.
  • Strategic Purpose of English Presidents: The INC strategically elected several British presidents early in its history (including Sir William Wedderburn and Sir Henry Cotton). This was a highly deliberate move to lend legitimacy to the movement, prove their constitutional loyalty, and favorably influence parliamentary opinion back in London.
  • Massive Growth Despite Opposition: Despite the government actively creating massive administrative hurdles (including denying them permission to use public grounds), the session attracted a record-breaking 1,248 delegates. This proved conclusively that British hostility was failing to curb the movement’s massive and rapidly growing popularity.
  • The Venue Struggle: Securing a venue became a major political battle. The government blocked every location until the nationalist-sympathizing Maharaja of Darbhanga stepped in. He strategically purchased the sprawling Lowther Castle and handed it over to the Congress specifically to host the defiant session.
📌 INC • Cultural Identity

Q.11) The national song ‘Vande Mataram’, composed by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, was first sung in a political context at which session of the INC?

Ans > 1896 Calcutta session
  • Literary Origins: The deeply moving and patriotic song ‘Vande Mataram’ (meaning “I bow to thee, Mother”) was originally composed by the legendary Bengali poet and novelist Bankim Chandra Chatterjee in 1874. It was later prominently featured in his highly influential 1882 political novel, Anandamath.
  • A Historic Musical Debut: The song made its historic political debut when it was publicly sung for the very first time during the 1896 Calcutta session of the Indian National Congress. The session was presided over by the respected Muslim leader, Rahimtulla M. Sayani.
  • Sung by a Nobel Laureate: Adding to the immense historical weight of the moment, the song was actually sung at the 1896 session by none other than Rabindranath Tagore himself. Tagore had personally composed the specific musical tune and rhythm for the poem that was used during the assembly.
  • The Anthem of the Swadeshi Movement: By 1905, during the massive public outrage over the Partition of Bengal, ‘Vande Mataram’ rapidly evolved from a poem into a powerful political battle cry. It became the defining slogan of the Swadeshi movement, inspiring thousands of revolutionaries to face British batons and bullets.
  • Adoption as the National Song: Due to its unparalleled historical role in mobilizing the Indian masses during the core years of the freedom struggle, the Constituent Assembly officially adopted ‘Vande Mataram’ as the National Song of the Republic of India on January 24, 1950, giving it equal status with the National Anthem.
📌 INC • Cultural Identity

Q.12) The poem ‘Jana Gana Mana’, which later became India’s national anthem, was first publicly sung at which session of the INC?

Ans > 1911 Calcutta session
  • The Composition: The deeply resonant poem ‘Jana Gana Mana’ was written and musically composed by the brilliant polymath and Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore. It was originally written in highly Sanskritized Bengali (Sadhu Bhasha), encompassing the diverse geography and cultural spirit of the Indian subcontinent.
  • The Public Debut: The poem was sung publicly for the very first time on the second day of the Indian National Congress session held in Calcutta on December 27, 1911. This historic session was presided over by the nationalist leader Bishan Narayan Dar.
  • The Structure of the Anthem: The complete original poem composed by Tagore consists of exactly five stanzas. However, only the very first stanza—which beautifully captures the essence of India’s unity in immense diversity—was eventually adopted to serve as the official National Anthem.
  • Translation and Musical Notation: Tagore himself later translated the Bengali song into English in 1919, under the title “The Morning Song of India,” while spending time at the Besant Theosophical College in Madanapalle (Andhra Pradesh), where the formal musical notation was also firmly established.
  • Constitutional Recognition: After years of serving as an unofficial anthem for the nationalist movement, the Constituent Assembly of India formally and officially adopted ‘Jana Gana Mana’ as the National Anthem of the newly formed Republic of India on January 24, 1950.
📌 INC • Ideological Divide

Q.13) The historic split between the Moderates and the Extremists occurred during the 1907 Surat session of the INC. Who presided over this chaotic session?

Ans > Rash Behari Ghosh
  • The Brewing Ideological Conflict: By 1907, a massive, unbridgeable ideological divide had formed within the Congress. The ‘Moderates’ (led by Gokhale and Pherozeshah Mehta) believed in gradual, constitutional reforms, while the ‘Extremists’ (led by Lal, Bal, and Pal) demanded immediate, aggressive action and outright Swaraj (self-rule).
  • The Core Issues of Disagreement: The tension boiled over specifically regarding four heavily disputed resolutions passed in the previous 1906 session: the aggressive implementation of Swadeshi, the nationwide Boycott of British goods, the establishment of National Education, and the ultimate demand for Swaraj.
  • The Presidential Clash: The Extremists desperately wanted Bal Gangadhar Tilak or Lala Lajpat Rai to preside over the 1907 session to push their radical agenda. However, the Moderates utilized their organizational control to ensure the highly conservative leader Rash Behari Ghosh was installed as the President.
  • A Chaotic Breakdown: The session in Surat descended into absolute chaos. Disagreements quickly escalated from verbal arguments to a physical brawl on the main stage, where chairs were broken and shoes were famously thrown at prominent leaders, forcing the British police to intervene and shut down the session.
  • The Aftermath of the Split: The Moderates immediately expelled the Extremists from the Congress. This tragic split severely weakened the national movement for nearly a decade. The British took massive advantage of this division, heavily cracking down on the Extremists and arresting leaders like Tilak, sending him to Mandalay prison.
📌 INC • Reunification & Pacts

Q.14) The Lucknow Pact of 1916 brought about an agreement between the Congress and the Muslim League. Who was the President of the Congress during this session?

Ans > Ambica Charan Majumdar
  • A Session of Historic Reunions: The 1916 Lucknow session of the Indian National Congress is widely considered one of the most historically significant political gatherings of the era. It was presided over by the veteran Moderate leader, Ambica Charan Majumdar.
  • Healing the Surat Divide: The first massive achievement of this session was the readmission of the Extremist faction back into the Congress fold. Following the death of moderate stalwarts like Gokhale and Mehta, and Tilak’s release from Mandalay prison, Annie Besant heavily facilitated this crucial reunification.
  • The Lucknow Pact with the League: The second, and arguably more monumental achievement, was the signing of the historic Lucknow Pact between the INC and the All India Muslim League. Both organizations agreed to hold their annual sessions in the same city and presented a unified set of constitutional demands to the British.
  • The Massive Congress Compromise: To secure this Hindu-Muslim political unity against the British, the Congress made a massive ideological compromise: they formally accepted the Muslim League’s demand for ‘Separate Electorates’ for Muslims, a highly controversial decision that would heavily impact the future of partition.
  • The Ambassador of Unity: Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who was a prominent member of both the Congress and the League at the time, played an absolutely central role in drafting and negotiating this pact. For his masterful diplomatic efforts here, Sarojini Naidu famously gave him the title “Ambassador of Hindu-Muslim Unity.”
📌 INC • Women Leaders

Q.15) Who was the first woman to be elected as the President of the Indian National Congress, presiding over the 1917 Calcutta session?

Ans > Annie Besant
  • An Irish Force in Indian Politics: Annie Besant was a highly dynamic Irish socialist, women’s rights activist, and leading theosophist who fiercely adopted India as her home. She became one of the most powerful and influential voices demanding self-government for the Indian subcontinent during World War I.
  • The Home Rule Movement: In 1916, heavily inspired by the Irish rebellion, she launched the massive All India Home Rule League in Madras (simultaneously with Tilak’s league in Pune). She aggressively utilized her influential newspapers, New India and Commonweal, to popularize the demand for immediate dominion status.
  • Internment and Public Outrage: Viewing her massive popularity as a severe threat to the war effort, the British colonial government arrested and interned her in June 1917. This sparked absolutely unprecedented nationwide protests and intense international pressure, forcing the government to release her unconditionally in September.
  • A Historic Presidential Election: Riding an absolute massive wave of immense public sympathy and unmatched political popularity following her release, Annie Besant was unanimously elected as the President of the 1917 Calcutta session, making her the very first woman to ever hold this prestigious office.
  • A Shifting Political Landscape: Despite her monumental early contributions, Besant’s influence rapidly waned in the 1920s. She fundamentally disagreed with Mahatma Gandhi’s radical, extra-constitutional methods of mass non-cooperation and civil disobedience, causing her to step back from the frontline leadership of the Congress.
📌 INC • Women Leaders

Q.16) In 1925, who became the first Indian woman to preside over the Indian National Congress at its Kanpur session?

Ans > Sarojini Naidu
  • The Nightingale of India: Sarojini Naidu was a brilliantly gifted, internationally acclaimed poet (known as the Bharat Kokila or Nightingale of India), a fierce feminist, and a highly dedicated political activist who became one of Mahatma Gandhi’s most trusted and loyal lieutenants.
  • A Milestone for Indian Women: At the 1925 Kanpur session, she achieved a monumental milestone by becoming the first *Indian* woman (and only the second woman overall, after Annie Besant) to be elected as the President of the Indian National Congress, heavily symbolizing the massive entry of Indian women into mainstream politics.
  • Leadership in the Salt Satyagraha: When Gandhi was arrested during the historic 1930 Salt March, it was Sarojini Naidu who fearlessly took over the leadership of the movement. She bravely led the massive, highly dangerous, non-violent raid on the heavily guarded Dharasana Salt Works, facing brutal police violence.
  • Global Representation: Naidu was a highly articulate global ambassador for the Indian cause. She notably accompanied Mahatma Gandhi to London in 1931 to participate in the highly crucial Second Round Table Conference, representing the demands of Indian women on an international stage.
  • Post-Independence Legacy: Her massive dedication to public service continued after independence. In 1947, she was appointed as the Governor of the United Provinces (present-day Uttar Pradesh), making her the very first female governor of an Indian state, a position she held until her death.
📌 INC • Key Figures

Q.17) Mahatma Gandhi presided over the Indian National Congress session only once in his lifetime. In which year and location did this occur?

Ans > 1924, Belgaum
  • The Reluctant President: Despite being the absolute, undisputed supreme leader of the Indian national movement from 1920 onwards, Mahatma Gandhi actively avoided holding formal political office. He chose to preside over the Indian National Congress session only once in his entire lifetime.
  • The Historic Venue: This singular, highly historic event took place at the 39th session of the INC, held in the city of Belgaum (now in modern-day Karnataka) in December 1924. The venue was specifically chosen to deeply energize the nationalist movement in the southern provinces.
  • Healing a Massive Party Rift: Gandhi accepted the presidency out of sheer necessity. The Congress was severely fractured following the abrupt suspension of the Non-Cooperation Movement in 1922. The party was deeply divided between the ‘No-Changers’ (like C. Rajagopalachari) and the ‘Swarajists’ (like C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru).
  • The Pragmatic Compromise: During his presidency, Gandhi masterfully utilized his immense moral authority to forge a crucial compromise. He officially agreed to allow the Swaraj Party to contest elections and work within the legislative councils explicitly on behalf of the Congress, preventing a disastrous formal split.
  • Focus on the Constructive Program: While allowing the political faction to enter the councils, Gandhi aggressively pivoted the main body of the Congress towards his ‘Constructive Program’. He demanded massive grassroots work focused on promoting Khadi spinning, fostering deep Hindu-Muslim unity, and eradicating the severe social evil of untouchability.
📌 INC • Declarations

Q.18) The famous ‘Purna Swaraj’ (Complete Independence) resolution was passed during the 1929 Lahore session. Who presided over this historic session?

Ans > Jawaharlal Nehru
  • A Generational Shift in Leadership: The 1929 Lahore session marked a massive turning point. The old guard of the Congress formally handed over the reins of the movement to the younger, highly radicalized generation by electing a young Jawaharlal Nehru as the President.
  • Abandoning Dominion Status: Frustrated by the British government’s arrogant refusal to accept the moderate demands outlined in the Nehru Report, the Congress officially abandoned its long-standing, moderate goal of achieving ‘Dominion Status’ within the British Empire.
  • The Demand for Complete Independence: In a highly electrifying atmosphere, the Congress passed the monumental ‘Purna Swaraj’ resolution, declaring that the ultimate and only acceptable political goal of the Indian national movement was now complete, unfettered independence from British rule.
  • Authorizing Civil Disobedience: The session heavily empowered the Congress Working Committee to launch a massive, nationwide program of Civil Disobedience, which would specifically include the total non-payment of taxes, explicitly setting the stage for Gandhi’s historic Salt March a few months later.
  • The First Independence Day: In a deeply symbolic and highly emotional act, Nehru unfurled the newly adopted tricolor national flag on the banks of the Ravi river at midnight on December 31. The Congress declared that January 26, 1930, would be publicly celebrated across the nation as the first ‘Independence Day’.
📌 INC • Policy & Economics

Q.19) At the 1931 Karachi session, the Congress passed landmark resolutions on Fundamental Rights and the National Economic Programme. Who presided over this session?

Ans > Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
  • A Session Under Shadow: The highly crucial 1931 Karachi session was held just days after the tragic execution of the great revolutionaries Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru. The atmosphere was extremely tense, with Gandhi facing black flag protests from angry youth upon his arrival.
  • The Iron Man Presides: The session was presided over by the formidable organizer and leader, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel. Despite the massive public anger, Patel masterfully navigated the session to formally endorse the controversial Gandhi-Irwin Pact, allowing the Congress to participate in the upcoming Round Table Conference.
  • The Blueprint for Modern India: The most monumental achievement of the Karachi session was the passing of two historic resolutions—one on Fundamental Rights and the other on the National Economic Programme—which were heavily drafted by Jawaharlal Nehru with input from Gandhi.
  • Guaranteeing Civil Liberties: The Fundamental Rights resolution was a massive democratic leap. For the very first time, the Congress explicitly promised the Indian people freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of religion, universal adult franchise, and strict state neutrality in religious matters.
  • Progressive Economic Vision: The National Economic Programme laid down a highly progressive, socialist-leaning vision. It demanded substantial reductions in agricultural rent, the total abolition of forced labor (begar), the right for workers to form trade unions, and state control over key industries and mineral resources.
📌 INC • Unique Sessions

Q.20) The 1937 session of the INC is notable for being the first session held in a rural village. Where was this session held?

Ans > Faizpur
  • A Deliberate Shift to the Grassroots: Breaking a 50-year tradition of exclusively holding major political sessions in massive urban metropolitan cities, the 50th session of the Indian National Congress in 1937 was deliberately and highly strategically held in the remote, obscure village of Faizpur in Maharashtra.
  • Symbolizing Peasant Solidarity: This was a highly symbolic move engineered by Mahatma Gandhi. It was designed to visually and politically demonstrate the Congress party’s absolute, unwavering commitment to the vast agrarian masses and the ongoing peasant struggles that were sweeping across rural India.
  • Jawaharlal Nehru at the Helm: The historic rural session was presided over by Jawaharlal Nehru. In his powerful presidential address, he heavily emphasized the urgent need to integrate the massive, localized peasant movements (Kisan Sabhas) directly into the broader, mainstream national struggle for independence.
  • The Agrarian Programme: At Faizpur, the Congress formulated and passed a highly detailed, 13-point ‘Agrarian Programme’. This radical document demanded an immediate 50% reduction in land revenue, the total abolition of archaic feudal dues, the provision of cheap agricultural credit, and the writing off of massive rural debts.
  • The Khadi Exhibition: A major highlight of the session, personally organized and overseen by Gandhi, was a massive exhibition exclusively featuring Khadi textiles and indigenous village industries. This aimed to showcase the sheer economic viability of decentralized, rural economic self-reliance against British industrial goods.
📌 INC • Internal Elections

Q.21) In the highly contested 1939 Tripuri Congress presidential election, Subhas Chandra Bose defeated which candidate backed by Mahatma Gandhi?

Ans > Pattabhi Sitaramayya
  • A Clash of Ideologies: The 1939 Tripuri session witnessed the most severe internal ideological clash in Congress history. Subhas Chandra Bose, representing the radical, aggressive left-wing, sought re-election to actively push for an immediate mass struggle against the British, anticipating the outbreak of World War II.
  • Gandhi’s Preferred Candidate: The conservative ‘Old Guard’ of the Congress Working Committee, heavily backed by Mahatma Gandhi, strongly opposed Bose’s militant approach. They fielded Dr. Pattabhi Sitaramayya, a highly respected leader from Andhra, as their official moderate candidate to challenge Bose.
  • A Stunning Electoral Upset: In a highly democratic but incredibly tense internal election, Bose managed to secure a stunning victory, winning 1580 votes against Sitaramayya’s 1377. This marked a massive repudiation of the moderate strategy by the younger, more radical delegates.
  • “Pattabhi’s Defeat is My Defeat”: The election result sent absolute shockwaves through the party. Mahatma Gandhi publicly issued a highly emotional statement declaring, “Pattabhi’s defeat is my defeat,” signaling his profound loss of confidence in the new, radicalized direction of the Congress leadership.
  • The Formation of the Forward Bloc: Following the victory, the entire Gandhi-aligned Working Committee resigned en masse, making it practically impossible for Bose to function as President. Facing absolute non-cooperation from the party machinery, Bose was forced to resign. He subsequently formed his own radical faction within the Congress, the ‘Forward Bloc’.
📌 INC • Independence

Q.22) At the time of India’s independence in August 1947, who was serving as the President of the Indian National Congress?

Ans > J.B. Kripalani
  • The Final President of the British Era: Acharya Jivatram Bhagwandas (J.B.) Kripalani was a highly respected former professor, a staunch, uncompromising Gandhian, and an incredibly dedicated freedom fighter. He was elected President at the Meerut session in 1946.
  • Guiding Through the Turmoil: Kripalani held the incredibly stressful position of Congress President during the most turbulent, violent, and highly consequential period in modern Indian history—managing the party machinery during the chaotic transfer of power and the horrific bloodbath of the Partition in August 1947.
  • The Party vs. The Government: As the newly formed interim government (led by Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Sardar Patel) took actual administrative power, a massive, fundamental structural conflict arose regarding exactly who should dictate national policy: the elected government ministers or the President of the Congress party.
  • A Resignation of Principle: Kripalani strongly argued that the government must consult the party apparatus on all major policy decisions. Nehru and Patel firmly rejected this, insisting that the government must remain independent. Feeling utterly sidelined and marginalized by the new state power structure, Kripalani resigned in November 1947.
  • A Legacy of Integrity: Despite leaving the presidency, Kripalani remained a massive moral force in Indian politics. He later went on to form the Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party (KMPP) and spent decades as one of the most fierce, principled, and vocal parliamentary critics of the post-independence Congress governments.
📌 Gandhian Era • Early Movements

Q.23) Mahatma Gandhi’s first major civil disobedience movement (Satyagraha) in India was launched in 1917 to protect indigo cultivators. Where did this take place?

Ans > Champaran
  • The Oppressive Tinkathia System: In the Champaran district of Bihar, European planters had ruthlessly enforced the highly exploitative ‘Tinkathia’ system. Under this draconian contract, poor Indian peasants were legally forced by the planters to cultivate indigo (a cash crop) on exactly 3/20th of their total landholdings, at extremely low, fixed prices.
  • The Invitation to Intervene: A highly determined local peasant named Rajkumar Shukla relentlessly pursued Mahatma Gandhi across India, eventually convincing him to visit Champaran in 1917 to personally witness the horrifying poverty, illegal taxation, and sheer physical abuse suffered by the indigo farmers.
  • The First Test of Satyagraha: When Gandhi arrived, the local British authorities immediately ordered him to leave the district. In a highly historic moment, Gandhi politely but firmly refused, stating he was ready to face imprisonment. This marked his very first, highly successful act of formal civil disobedience on Indian soil.
  • Meticulous Investigation: Instead of immediate riots, Gandhi and his team of young lawyers (including a young Rajendra Prasad) conducted a massive, highly systematic open inquiry, meticulously recording the terrifying testimonies of over 8,000 exploited peasants, building an undeniable, massive case against the planters.
  • A Resounding Victory: Bowing to the massive pressure and undeniable evidence, the government formed an inquiry committee and remarkably made Gandhi a member. The committee eventually declared the Tinkathia system illegal and forced the European planters to refund a significant portion of the illegally extracted wealth, marking Gandhi’s first major victory.
📌 Gandhian Era • Early Movements

Q.24) During which agitation in 1918 did Mahatma Gandhi undertake his first hunger strike in India, securing a 35% wage hike for the workers?

Ans > Ahmedabad Mill Strike
  • The Core Labor Dispute: In 1918, a severe conflict erupted in Ahmedabad between the wealthy Indian owners of the cotton mills and the thousands of impoverished mill workers. The dispute specifically centered around the owners’ abrupt decision to heavily withdraw the “plague bonus” that had been given during an epidemic.
  • The Demand for Fair Wages: With the devastating inflation caused by the ongoing World War I deeply affecting their survival, the desperate workers demanded a 50% wage hike to compensate for the lost bonus. The mill owners stubbornly refused, offering only a highly inadequate 20% increment.
  • Gandhi’s Intervention and Advice: Anasuya Sarabhai (sister of a prominent mill owner) requested Gandhi’s intervention. After a detailed study, Gandhi advised the workers to demand exactly a 35% wage hike and urged them to go on a completely peaceful, non-violent strike until their highly reasonable demand was met.
  • The First “Fast Unto Death”: As the strike dragged on, the starving workers began to lose their resolve and considered returning to work out of sheer desperation. To rally their spirits and morally pressure the owners, Gandhi undertook a “fast unto death”—his very first hunger strike utilized as a political weapon in India.
  • The Successful Arbitration: The massive moral weight of Gandhi’s fast deeply unnerved the wealthy mill owners. Within days, they capitulated and agreed to submit the entire wage dispute to an independent tribunal. The tribunal eventually completely validated Gandhi’s calculations and officially awarded the workers the full 35% wage increase.
📌 Gandhian Era • Early Movements

Q.25) The Kheda Satyagraha of 1918 was Mahatma Gandhi’s first non-cooperation movement in India. What was the primary demand of the peasants?

Ans > Remission of land revenue due to crop failure
  • The Agrarian Crisis: In 1918, the Kheda district in Gujarat was hit by a devastating combination of severe droughts, widespread crop failures, and a horrific outbreak of the plague. The farmers (Patidars) were facing absolute economic ruin and mass starvation.
  • The Cruel Revenue Code: According to the official colonial revenue code, if the crop yield in a given year was substantially less than one-fourth of the normal produce, the farmers were legally entitled to a complete remission of the land revenue for that year.
  • Government Apathy: Despite the undeniable, massive evidence of total crop failure, the highly callous British administration flatly refused to grant the legally mandated remission. Instead, they ruthlessly threatened to confiscate the farmers’ lands and cattle if the full taxes were not paid immediately.
  • The Call for Non-Cooperation: Gandhi, alongside a young, brilliant organizer named Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, initiated a massive Satyagraha. They instructed all the peasants to take a solemn pledge to totally withhold the payment of revenue, choosing to face extreme poverty and government confiscation rather than submit to injustice.
  • A Quiet but Massive Moral Victory: Facing incredibly resolute, non-violent resistance from a highly unified peasantry, the British government secretly backed down. They issued highly confidential orders directing local officials to only collect revenue from those who could genuinely afford to pay, while suspending the rest, resulting in a massive moral victory.
📌 Gandhian Era • Mass Strikes

Q.26) The Rowlatt Satyagraha, launched in 1919, is considered significant because it marked Mahatma Gandhi’s first attempt at what?

Ans > Leading an all-India mass strike
  • The Draconian ‘Black Act’: In 1919, the British hastily passed the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act, popularly known as the Rowlatt Act. This terrifying law allowed the colonial government to arrest any Indian suspect without a warrant and detain them indefinitely without trial (“Na Dalil, Na Vakil, Na Appeal”).
  • A Shift in Gandhi’s Strategy: Previously, Gandhi’s massive successes in India (Champaran, Kheda, Ahmedabad) had been highly localized, regional struggles addressing specific economic grievances. The draconian nature of the Rowlatt Act deeply convinced him that a massive, coordinated national response was urgently required.
  • The First All-India Mass Movement: Gandhi organized the highly disciplined ‘Satyagraha Sabha’ and formally called for a nationwide ‘Hartal’ (a complete strike involving fasting, prayer, and the suspension of all business) on April 6, 1919. This was his very first attempt at leading a truly all-India mass political strike.
  • Elevation to National Supreme Leader: The response to the call was absolutely phenomenal, with millions of Indians across vastly different regions and communities participating simultaneously. This single event permanently elevated Gandhi from being a respected regional activist to the undisputed, supreme leader of the national independence movement.
  • The Tragic Consequence: While intended to be strictly non-violent, the massive agitation unfortunately led to sporadic violence in places like Punjab. The British responded with unimaginable brutality, culminating in the horrific Jallianwala Bagh massacre in Amritsar on April 13, 1919, deeply scarring the nation’s psyche.
📌 Gandhian Era • Pacts

Q.27) The Gandhi-Irwin Pact of 1931, which suspended the Civil Disobedience Movement, is also known by which other name?

Ans > The Delhi Pact
  • The Pressure of the Salt March: Following the massive, global impact of the Salt Satyagraha and the subsequent Civil Disobedience Movement, the British administration in India was deeply paralyzed. Viceroy Lord Irwin recognized that constitutional progress was utterly impossible without the active cooperation of the Indian National Congress.
  • A Meeting of Equals: For the very first time in colonial history, the representative of the mighty British Crown and the leader of the Indian national movement met as absolute equals. After several intense, prolonged meetings in Delhi, they signed the historic agreement on March 5, 1931.
  • The Terms of the Delhi Pact: The British government agreed to immediately withdraw all repressive ordinances, release all political prisoners (strictly excluding those convicted of violent crimes), permit the peaceful picketing of foreign cloth shops, and allow coastal villages to manufacture salt for their personal consumption.
  • The Congress Concessions: In return for these major concessions, Mahatma Gandhi officially agreed to completely suspend the ongoing Civil Disobedience Movement. Furthermore, he agreed that the Congress would end its boycott and actively participate in the upcoming Second Round Table Conference in London.
  • A Highly Controversial Compromise: The pact, while a diplomatic triumph, was heavily criticized by young radicals like Subhas Chandra Bose and Jawaharlal Nehru. The deepest anger arose because Gandhi was utterly unable to convince Lord Irwin to commute the death sentences of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru.
📌 Freedom Struggle • British Proposals

Q.28) In 1940, to secure Indian cooperation during World War II, the British government issued the ‘August Offer’. Which Viceroy made this offer?

Ans > Lord Linlithgow
  • The Context of Global War: By mid-1940, the situation in World War II had become incredibly dire for the British Empire following the rapid, shocking fall of France to Nazi Germany. The British desperately needed the massive, active cooperation of Indian manpower and resources to sustain their struggling war effort.
  • The Offer by Linlithgow: Attempting to appease the massive political deadlock, Viceroy Lord Linlithgow issued a highly calculated statement on August 8, 1940, which became known as the ‘August Offer’. It was the first time the British formally acknowledged the Indians’ right to frame their own constitution.
  • The Specific Proposals: The offer promised the immediate expansion of the Viceroy’s Executive Council to include a majority of Indians, the establishment of a war advisory council, and explicitly promised that a representative Indian constituent assembly would be convened immediately after the conclusion of the war.
  • The Minority Veto Provision: Crucially, to appease the Muslim League, Linlithgow heavily emphasized that the British government would absolutely not transfer power to any Indian system of government whose authority was strongly denied by “large and powerful elements in India’s national life” (effectively giving Jinnah a massive veto).
  • Total Rejection by Congress: The Indian National Congress utterly rejected the August Offer, as it did not promise immediate independence or even an immediate national government. In response to this diplomatic failure, Mahatma Gandhi launched the highly disciplined, morally focused ‘Individual Satyagraha’ campaign.
📌 Freedom Struggle • British Proposals

Q.29) The Cripps Mission (1942) proposed Dominion Status for India after the war. Which Indian leader famously rejected it as a “post-dated cheque on a crashing bank”?

Ans > Mahatma Gandhi
  • Desperation in the Pacific: By early 1942, the Imperial Japanese Army was advancing incredibly rapidly across Southeast Asia, having captured Singapore and Rangoon, and was literally knocking on the eastern borders of India. Under massive pressure from US President Roosevelt, Winston Churchill reluctantly sent a mission to India.
  • The Cripps Proposals: Led by the left-leaning cabinet minister Sir Stafford Cripps, the mission proposed granting India full ‘Dominion Status’ and the right to secede from the British Commonwealth, along with a firm promise to set up a constitution-making body—but strictly *only after* the war ended.
  • The Fundamental Flaws: The proposals were deeply flawed. They offered absolutely no immediate transfer of real administrative power for the duration of the war. Worse, they included a highly dangerous clause allowing any Indian province to refuse to accept the new constitution and form a separate union, laying the groundwork for partition.
  • The Post-Dated Cheque: Mahatma Gandhi famously and fiercely rejected the vague, future promises of the Cripps Mission, reportedly calling it a “post-dated cheque drawn on a crashing bank,” reflecting his belief that the British Empire was on the verge of collapse and its future promises were worthless.
  • A Complete Diplomatic Failure: The mission was completely rejected by every single major political party in India. The Congress wanted immediate power, the Muslim League wanted a clear promise of Pakistan, and the Dalits feared upper-caste domination. This total failure directly triggered the massive Quit India Movement.
📌 Freedom Struggle • Final Phase

Q.30) Following the failure of the Cripps Mission, the historic “Quit India” resolution was passed by the All India Congress Committee on which date?

Ans > August 8, 1942
  • The Boiling Point of Frustration: The absolute failure of the Cripps Mission, combined with widespread wartime economic hardships, severe food shortages, and the looming threat of a Japanese invasion, pushed the Indian masses to a massive boiling point of frustration against the British administration.
  • The Historic Gowalia Tank Session: On August 8, 1942, the All India Congress Committee met at the historic Gowalia Tank Maidan (now known as August Kranti Maidan) in Bombay. Here, they formally passed the monumental “Quit India” resolution, demanding an immediate, total end to British rule in India.
  • The Mantra of “Do or Die”: In a deeply electrifying speech that lasted over two hours, Mahatma Gandhi gave the nation his final, absolute mantra: “Do or Die” (Karenge ya Marenge). He declared that Indians must either free India immediately or die in the attempt, abandoning his usual strict caution.
  • Operation Zero Hour: Terrified by the scale of the impending massive rebellion, the British colonial government launched ‘Operation Zero Hour’ before dawn on August 9, 1942. They ruthlessly arrested Gandhi and the entire top-tier leadership of the Congress Working Committee, attempting to crush the movement before it began.
  • A Leaderless Mass Uprising: The arrest of the leadership completely backfired. The Quit India movement rapidly became a massive, leaderless, and highly violent mass uprising—the most serious threat to British rule since the 1857 revolt. Students, peasants, and workers launched massive strikes, destroyed railway lines, and even established parallel governments in places like Ballia and Satara.

📌 Quick Summary — Modern History Set 95

  • Pre-Congress Formations: Zamindari Association (Dwarkanath Tagore, 1838), British Indian Association (Radhakanta Deb, 1851), East India Association (Dadabhai Naoroji, 1866).
  • Regional Powerhouses: Indian Association of Calcutta (S.N. Banerjea, 1876), Madras Mahajana Sabha (1884), Bombay Presidency Association (Tyabji, Mehta, Telang, 1885).
  • INC Founding: 72 delegates attended the 1885 Bombay session.
  • Firsts in INC: Muslim Pres (Tyabji, 1887), English Pres (Yule, 1888), Woman Pres (Besant, 1917), Indian Woman Pres (Naidu, 1925).
  • Cultural Milestones: Vande Mataram sung (1896), Jana Gana Mana sung (1911).
  • Factions & Pacts: Surat Split (1907) under R.B. Ghosh. Lucknow Pact (1916) under A.C. Majumdar.
  • Key Resolutions: Purna Swaraj at Lahore (Nehru, 1929). Fundamental Rights at Karachi (Patel, 1931).
  • Unique Sessions: Gandhi’s only presidency (Belgaum, 1924). First rural session (Faizpur, 1937). Bose defeating Pattabhi (Tripuri, 1939).
  • Gandhian Entry: Champaran (First Civil Disobedience, 1917). Ahmedabad (First Hunger Strike, 1918). Kheda (First Non-Cooperation, 1918).
  • Mass Movements: Rowlatt (First All-India Strike, 1919). Gandhi-Irwin / Delhi Pact (1931).
  • Endgame: August Offer (Linlithgow, 1940), Cripps Mission (“Post-dated cheque”, 1942), Quit India Resolution (August 8, 1942).
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